Leadership and Management Development Essays

Leadership and Management Development Essays Leadership and Management Development Essay Leadership and Management Development Essay Leadership and Management Development Name: Institution: LEADERSHIP AND MANAGEMENT DEVELOPMENT Introduction Leadership and Management development are important in the successful operation of any organization. This report details several items on my agenda as the new Management and Development programs Director at the NSCA. First, this report will highlight the framework that I will adopt in the new position. It will also suggest the policies I will implement in my new capacity. The report will identify processes crucial for the NSCA’s success, as well. Finally, this report will identify a few programs that this office shall commence. All the strategies that identified in this report are to ensure that the NSCA has the right management, workforce and enough resources, to ensure effective operation. 1.) Leadership Framework A leadership framework dictates that leadership should not be limited to personnel holding traditional leader or management roles. It also states that leadership in an organization is most effective when we divide responsibilities in service delivery. At the NSCA, any staffer can therefore provide leadership. This statement holds for as long as they illustrate appropriate mannerisms. Such mannerisms are empowering the leadership levels of fellow staffers and significant contributions to the leadership process (Hargreaves Fink, 2006). For effective implementation of the leadership framework in this organization, several changes are required. For starters, the workforce needs restructuring. It is my recommendation that; first, personnel be divided into several teams. At the helm will be a team leader/ supervisor. The team leader’s responsibilities include; providing clear direction to the team, allocating work to team members and resolving conflicts within the team satisfactorily. They will also be required to provide the team and its members with a supportive and inclusive environment. Above the team leaders, Managers will be in charge. The managers will have various roles as well. A few are; delegating responsibilities to the team leaders, monitoring team performance and taking necessary action, supporting the teams create and maintain team values, and developing the staff below them. It is my recommendation for the placing of Senior Managers above Managers at the NSCA. This hierarchy will be necessary in limiting overlapping responsibilities. The proposed Senior Managers should hold several responsibilities. First, they should communicate the departmental objectives to the staff and teams below them. They should monitor and review performance of managers and staff under them. Finally, they should be able to act as mentors to the staff. In this role, they will provide specialist guidance and support to the respective department (Steers, Sanchez-Runde Nardon, 2010). At the helm of each department, it is my recommendation that a Director takes charge. Such leaders are ‘Strategic Managers.’ Their main role will be providing effective leadership in their areas of responsibility. They will also be required to create and announce the strategic direction for their areas of jurisdiction. In the organization, they should be able to promote an environment where diversity is highly valued. Strategic managers will be finally required to act as mentors to staff under their leadership. The leadership model identified above describes a distributed or shared model. Everyone in the NSCA has the opportunity to contribute to the leadership process, without necessarily being a leader. This is through the responsibilities described in the Leadership Framework. 2.) Leadership Management Policies The purpose of leadership is to develop vision, commitment, and embracing innovation among staff. Management, on the other hand, develops systems that improve consistency and predictability in service delivery. Effective leadership and management are important due to a variety of factors. First, they enable the organization to carry out its national priorities, successfully. Secondly, they provide learning environments for staff. Such communities are typically safe, ambitious and active. Effective leadership and management enable the organization in developing changes and improvements necessary for perfecting it. Lastly, they enable staff to provide excellent service consistently. The aforementioned policy statement results into several important principles. The first is promotion of leadership at all Organisational levels. This will widen the existing range of experiences and skills, existing in the organization, to all staff. The next principle dictates that; the NSCA will provide a framework for efficient and sustained support in leadership and management to all staff and teams. The organization shall strive to provide a program of support in leadership and management. The aforementioned program requires placing in a structure; understood and implemented by all staff. The prospective Leadership and Management policy ha several outcomes expected out of it. Leaders and managers working within legal, financial and national influences, have several things expected out of them. They are required to uphold and support the strategic vision, values and aims of the National Civil Service Agency (NSCA). They should embrace and grow the team approach, structured into service delivery. Finally, they will be required to nurture sustained development and improvement of staff and the services provided to the Public. To ensure that implementation of the aforementioned statements, each member of staff at the NSCA has responsibilities. These responsibilities are employee responsibilities and managerial responsibilities. Employees have a duty to perform in a professional manner, uphold the Leadership and Management policy statement and to recognize, respect and uphold individual roles and duties in the organization. Managers also have responsibilities to carry out: they will be required to appropriately listen to their employees and peers and act effectively. Managers are required to promote the participation of teams and their members in developmental activities. Finally, they are required to provide direction to the teams under their leadership. 3.) Leadership processes. There are two key leadership processes in existence. For the NSCA’s effectiveness in service delivery, delivery of both needs implementation without fail. The leadership processes include management and vision. Vision describes where leadership begins. It is an image of the future desired by the organization. In short, vision guides the organization’s progress. Management describes the ability to implement objectives, by planning, organizing and effectively employing resources. Management is associated with prudence and preserving limited resources. Managers lacking vision may limit innovation in the organization, while, leaders lacking managerial skill may lose the organization’s resources (Raadschelders, Toonen Meer, 2007). 4.) Leadership and Management Programs To ensure the success of the NSCA in Leadership and Management, several programs need implementation. First, mentorship programs need implementation in the organization. Such a program will enable staff to take part in leadership activities, directly. Managers need to provide them the opportunities to make decisions and see their effects. As a result, employees can manage lower duties, while, managers provide leadership where necessary. Short Leadership and training courses also need to implementation, in partnership with an appropriate higher learning institution. This will enable employees and managers to gain the latest information on effective leadership and management programs. As a result, employees and team leaders will gain fundamental leadership skills suited for their work environments. Managers in turn receive skills necessary in improving the organization’s productivity. 5.) Conclusion Effective leadership is a crucial aspect of public governance. It leads to enhanced management capacity and performance in public institutions such as the NSCA. The carrying out of change in Leadership and Management is paramount. If not, public service organizations will fail in reforming their service delivery. Various studies have found that there is a strong link between effective leadership in public organizations and their performance. It is my desire that full implementation of all strategies mentioned in this report is carried out. References Hargreaves, A., Fink, D. (2006). Sustainable leadership. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Raadschelders, J. C. N., Toonen, T. A. J., Meer, F. M. (2007). The civil service in the 21st century: Comparative perspectives. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. Steers, R. M., Sa?nchez-Runde, C., Nardon, L. (2010). Management across cultures: Challenges and strategies. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Topss England., HZ Management and Training Consultancy. (2004). Leadership Management. Leeds: Topss England.

How Do You Calculate SAT Score Raw and Scaled

How Do You Calculate SAT Score Raw and Scaled SAT / ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips You know your SAT score is important for college admissions and even things like scholarships, but how does your SAT score get calculated? I'll show the steps to calculating your final SAT score so you can get an accurate idea of how well you're doing on the exam. // Step 1: Determine Your Raw Scores Your raw score is simply calculated using the number of questions you answered correctly. // For every question you answer correctly on the SAT, you receive one point. There is no penalty for guessing or skipping. // The maximum possible raw score varies by section (and depends on the total number of questions asked). For example, for the Reading Test, there are 52 questions, so the maximum raw score is 52. If you answered all 52 questions correctly, you would have a raw score of 52. For Math, there are 58 questions. For Writing, there are 44 multiple-choice questions. // There is one essay, which is graded separately on a scale of 2-8 and is not factored into your composite score (your 400-1600 score); therefore, I will not be discussing it further in this article, but for more information, read our articles on the new SAT essay prompts and the SAT essay rubric. // Step 2: Convert the Raw Scores to Scaled Scores The raw score is converted into the scale score (on the 200 to 800 scale for each section) using a table. This table varies by SAT test date. The table is used as a way to make sure each test is â€Å"standardized†. The table is a way of making â€Å"easier† SAT tests equal to the â€Å"harder† SAT tests. For instance, a raw score of 57 in Math might translate to an 800 on one test date and 790 on another. // For Math, you simply convert your raw score to final section score using the table. For the Evidence-Based Reading and Writing section score, there is an extra step. You get individual raw scores for the Reading Test and the Writing and Language Test. These two raw scores are the converted into two scaled test scores using a table. The two test scores are then added together and multiplied by 10 to give you your final Evidence-Based Reading and Writing section score (from 200 to 800). I'll explain this more in-depth with examples below: // You cannot know what the raw to scale score conversion will be in advance. While the exact raw to scale score conversion will vary by testing date, the College Board supplies this example chart in their new SAT Practice Test: Raw Score Math Section Score Reading TestScore Writing and Language Test Score 58 800 57 790 56 780 55 760 54 750 53 740 52 730 40 51 710 40 50 700 39 49 690 38 48 680 38 47 670 37 46 670 37 45 660 36 44 650 35 40 43 640 35 39 42 630 34 38 41 620 33 37 40 610 33 36 39 600 32 35 38 600 32 34 37 590 31 34 36 580 31 33 35 570 30 32 34 560 30 32 33 560 29 31 32 550 29 30 31 540 28 30 30 530 28 29 29 520 27 28 28 520 26 28 27 510 26 27 26 500 25 26 25 490 25 26 24 480 24 25 23 480 24 25 22 470 23 24 21 460 23 23 20 450 22 23 19 440 22 22 18 430 21 21 17 420 21 21 16 410 20 20 15 390 20 19 14 380 19 19 13 370 19 18 12 360 19 17 340 17 16 10 330 17 16 9 320 16 15 8 310 15 14 7 290 15 13 6 280 14 13 5 260 13 12 4 240 12 3 230 10 2 210 10 10 1 200 10 10 0 200 10 10 // Note: this is just an example. The exact conversion chart will vary slightly depending on the individual test. Why are Reading and Writing and Language listed as separate sections? Why are they graded from 10-40 instead of 200-800? As I mentioned briefly before, you get separateraw scores for the Reading and Writing and Language. You then take these two raw scores andconvert them into two scale scores using the above table. For example, if you answered 33 correctly in Reading and 39 correctly in Writing and Language, your scale scores would be 29 and 35, respectively. These two scaled scores are then added together and multiplied by 10 to give you your finalEvidence-Based Reading and Writing section score (from 200 to 800). Continuing the above example, if your scale scores were 29 for Reading and 35 for Writing and Language, your final Evidence-Based Reading and Writing scaled score would be: (29 + 35) x 10 = 64 x 10 = 640 Step 3: Take the Scaled Scores and Add Them Together Once you have your scaled score for both the Math and Evidence-Based Reading and Writing sections, you just add them together to get your overall SAT composite score. For example, if you scored a 710 in Math and 640 in Evidence-Based Reading and Writing, your composite score would be 710+640 = 1350. // How to Understand Your SAT Score Report The College Board gives you the breakdown of your incorrect, correct, and omitted answers on your SAT score report in addition to your final scaled scores. See below excerpts from a real new SAT score report: Note that on this test, the raw Math score was out of 57, not 58, points. This sometimes happens when a question on the test is deemed to be unfair or unanswerable and the SAT drops it from everyone's scoring. For the Reading and Writing and Language sections on this SAT score report, this student’s raw scores were 52 and 42. These raw SAT section scores scaled to section scores of 40 (Reading) and 39 (Writing and Language), which translated to a 790 Evidence-Based Reading Writing Score: (40 + 39) x 10 = 790 I'd like to emphasize that you will not be able to determine what the full table of raw to scaled scores conversion was from your score report. Instead, you will only be able to determine what your raw score was and see how it translated to your scaled score. What This Means for You Once you have determined your target SAT scorein terms of raw score, you can use it to determine your SAT test strategy options.We have plenty of resources to help you out. Once you know what SAT score you're aiming for and how far you are from that goal score, you can begin to develop a study plan, gather study materials, and get to work on raising your score! If You Need Help Creating a Study Plan How to Build an SAT Study Plan How to Cram for the SAT How Long Should You Study for the SAT? If You Need More Study Materials Complete Official SAT Practice Tests The Best SAT Prep Books The Best SAT Prep Websites You Should Be Using If You Want to Raise Your Score The Best Way to Review Your Mistakes for the SAT How to Get an 800 on SAT Reading How to Get an 800 on SAT Math What’s Next? Want to rock the SAT? Check out our complete SAT study guide! Want to find free new 2016 SAT practice tests? Check out our massive collection! Not sure what score to aim for on the new SAT? Read our guide to picking your target score. Disappointed with your scores? Want to improve your SAT score by 160 points?We've written a guide about the top 5 strategies you must be using to have a shot at improving your score. Download it for free now: Have friends who also need help with test prep? Share this article! Tweet Dora Seigel About the Author As an SAT/ACT tutor, Dora has guided many students to test prep success. She loves watching students succeed and is committed to helping you get there. Dora received a full-tuition merit based scholarship to University of Southern California. She graduated magna cum laude and scored in the 99th percentile on the ACT. She is also passionate about acting, writing, and photography. Get Free Guides to Boost Your SAT/ACT Get FREE EXCLUSIVE insider tips on how to ACE THE SAT/ACT. 100% Privacy. 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What evidence is there of application of the materiality concept in Research Paper

What evidence is there of application of the materiality concept in the report - Research Paper Example The most conspicuous evidence of the materiality principle in the preparation of JB Hi Fi’s financial report is minimal disclosure overload. According to the International Accounting Standards (IAS), most of the listed companies are expected to follow the structure as presented in paragraph 114 of IAS 1. However, JB Hi Fi is a conglomerate and deals with large volumes of financial information. Therefore, the company deals with complex financial information that requires sophisticated and alternative structures of presenting financial information. The company’s structure is different from the one proposed by international accounting standards, and better communicates the links between different pieces of information. Consequently, the company has enhanced its reflection of the financial position as well as the risks associated with the operation of the business. IAS proposes that listed companies should list intangible assets followed by trade and other receivables and finally trade and other payables when preparing the balance sheet. However, JB Hi Fi has a different order of items when preparing its balance sheet. The company lists trade and other receivables, intangible assets and trade and other receivables in an ascending order. JB Hi Fi bases its list of the balance sheet items on the importance of information presented in the financial report. Furthermore, the company cautions users of financial information not to read the financial statements in isolation. Rather, the company suggests that users of financial information should analyze financial statements in additional to reading notes to financial statements. The company’s statement of financial position has the three standard categories including assets, liabilities and equity. Each of these categories contains information about items related to each other for the sake of

Evolution of Rights and Responsibilities as Compared Between Native Essay

Evolution of Rights and Responsibilities as Compared Between Native American, African American and European American Women in th - Essay Example Tracing the social organization of Native American societies in the 18th century, Theda Perdue observes that these cultures practiced a well delineated division of labor between the sexes. She gives the example of the Wahpeton Dakota community where men and women lived three months of each year apart as the former hunted muskrats while the latter was involved in the production of sugar (Perdue 1999). Such a gendered division of labor, though perhaps not in consonance with modern notions of equity, ensured to Native American women a considerable degree of social autonomy, that which was denied to them during the heyday of the colonial era. Perdue thus refers to Bernard Romans to illustrate the manner which racial and gender intolerance mingled to in the manner in which Native American women were portrayed in the accounts of the early European settlers- â€Å"Their strength is great, and they labor hard, carrying very heavy bundles a great distance; they are lascivious, and have no id ea of chastity in a girl† (Romans qtd in Perdue 1999). The above description points to the collusion between racial and gender stereotypes whereby Eurocentric prescriptive notions of femininity were superimposed upon Native American women. The most striking shift in power equations could be seen in the case of the Cherokees. Anthropologists observe that Cherokee women had equal ownership of land and property, a practice that changed with the tribe being forced to sell significant portions of their land holdings to the United States government. The colonial government entered into these agreements with the men of community, rendering at once, the traditional parity of gender in these groups awry and creating a distinct hierarchy between the sexes (â€Å"Native women are fighting for their rights – and their lives† n.d.). This rupture within the community was deepened by then Voting Rights laws put forth for Native Americans by the American government. Till 1924, t ribes were often compelled to abandon their social and cultural affiliations with their respective groups in order to gain the right to vote in American elections. Yet again, the men already rendered more powerful due to superior economic rights had a more pronounce incentive in giving up their tribe affiliations (â€Å"Native women are fighting for their rights – and their lives† n.d.). The Indian Reorganization Act of 1934 was enacted chiefly to acknowledge the contribution of Native American troops in World War I. The act led to the reduction of federal involvement in Native American community life and increased the role of tribal self-governance. Though it was unprecedented in the autonomy that it conferred upon the Native Americans within the USA, the act also consolidated their â€Å"outsideness† and hence was not equally well received across Native American communities. Furthermore, the restoration of land to Native Americans yet again accentuated gender inequalities as it did not ensure equitable distribution between the sexes

Wealth over Health Essay Example for Free

Wealth over Health Essay People tend to look for wealth forgetting about their health and mostly after they have gained their wealth cannot save their health. Pictures tend to convince as to do the unimaginable just because hey mostly encourage as to what we think we are not capable of doing. The picture above clearly implies that we should help save a life but has a deeper meaning of speaking to people who spend all their time working to earn money and then think they have it all in life. Here I believe the image achieves it’s purpose because it stirs up a feeling to help donate blood because it makes you empathize with individuals who are in the same situation and the inscription on the image makes anyone think beyond what the image portrays so here we see that though we are being emotionally convinced we are being provoked to think about wealth and health and not just donating blood. Pictures appeal to pathos, logos and ethos which tend to one way or the other speak to everyone. As individuals of a technological age most of our decisions are influenced by the images we see around us because what we see tends to draw our attention and speaks to us in different ways. I believe images have the ability to change our mood, how we feel and how we think. The image above can be classified in having the ability of changing a persons mood from happy to sad or sad to happy. A person earning a lot of money who hasn’t thought about their health might be sad and a healthy person earning an average amount will be very excited to help save a life. Most of the time we create meaning through stories images project in our mind and they also tend to remind us of sad or happy moments we have experienced. Pictures, videos and all forms of visual imagery carry power which is able to convince us more than what we read or hear on radio. With the picture above we see blood and it make anyone alarmed to see what follows because as human beings blood is one of the most important things we need in our bodies since it helps  regulates the functions of all our organs. Here, the blood could have filled the container to create an image of shortage of blood in our mind which is a form of persuasion to help you save someone who is loosing blood. On the inscription on the poster it says, â€Å"save 3 lives without spending a cent† comparing three human lives to a cent just to show that money cannot help in all cases but as a human being you should know you are more important than money and so don’t spend all your time trying to get it but just spend a little of your time donating to someone who needs a little of your blood. I believe the red cross on the poster can also be speaking to Christians who believe Christ died on cross and shed His blood for healing. We are easily influenced by images because they tend to illustrate the unimaginable and give us confidence. In the image above we see ourselves as life savers due to the power the image creates in our mind and we now forget the pain of the needle being passed through our skin to get the blood out. We easily feel good because images persuade us to do the impossible and see the invisible. Most phrases we hear on our TV ads are â€Å"Look, it’s easyâ⠂¬  or â€Å"Microwave for 10 minutes and you just made the best meal’’. We feel impressed and have a sense of accomplishments when we see such words speaking to us in the form of images. The main purpose of images is to make us want to think we can do something which we don’t believe is possible and persuades us further that we can do it. In the second image it speaks clearly without the help of words. If you don’t take good care of your health whiles you have money you spend all your wealth on different kinds of medicines. This can also be a mild way of communicating to a particular audience that money is not everything because you can be purchasing medicines either to prevent a disease or cure a disease but you cannot be guaranteed an assurance on better health. In the article Health is Wealth and Wealth is Health – perceptions of health and ill health among female workers in Savannahkat Laos , â€Å"Health was defined as a condition that is needed to be able to work and collect money.† I think this definition was used because the sex workers need to get money to take care of their health. The amazing thing about images is that they are able to relate to each and everyone just like the pictures above. Most images are successful because they tend to persuade, inform and advertise to a large group of people. We make decisions based on what we see and though some images have a deeper meaning they are able to speak and achieve their aim of persuasion. We see through both images that we don’t only have to focus on our wealth and exclude our health but focusing on both will make you happy and will also make society a great place to be. Our health and wealth are very important and without both the journey of life is a tough one. Visual images find themselves in different contexts relating to different people but to make your point clear one needs to make an image have a connection with every individual and carry power to change the mood ,thought or action of a peron.

Essay --

Over the years, our accounting system has evolved from the tedious task of manual accounting to the ease of computerized accounting systems and programs. Computerized accounting has brought about a more efficient way of setting up and maintaining a company’s financial records. In previous years accountants would spend copious amounts of time manually recording business transactions through journalizing, posting to ledgers and mathematically checking each journal and ledger for errors. This process was necessary in order to compile data needed to produce financial reports and statements. The number of manual entries were so numerous that the margin of error was significantly increased. Simple mistakes, such as transposing a number or incorrectly recording a transaction in the wrong column could create a ripple effect of errors throughout each journal, ledger, or report issued for that period. The process of tracking one simple sales transaction was incredible compared to today’s accounting software. Manually, the transaction might begin with an invoice or sales receipt which beg...

Ethical Issues in Research Essay

Ethical issues are essential factors that must be given due and proper consideration in research. This becomes even more applicable when researchers deal with studies that involve human beings and animals. Numerous experiments are being made to achieve progress in various fields of discipline, including psychology. In doing so, human beings and animals must be protected, especially since using them in these experiments involves their well-being. For this reason, ethical standards are established. Ethical standards serve as the guidelines that govern the proper and improper participation and utilization of these life forms in research (University of Alberta, 2008). These standards ensure that studies which involve human beings and animals are subjected to limitations so that they would not be taken advantage of. According to the British Psychological Society (BPS) (2008), ethical guidelines give importance to respecting an individual as the researchers should not express any sign of prejudice toward the participants due to differences in racial descent, sexuality, language, and such. The privacy of the participants should also be respected. Thus, researchers must only acquire the personal information necessary for the study, and this information must be kept confidential. The researchers should also obtain the consent of the individuals who will participate in the study. During the study itself, participants should also be protected from any kind of harm, may it be psychological (e. g. , stress and anxiety) or physical. Moreover, the researchers also have to respect the participant’s right to leave an experiment any time that he or she wishes to. In another perspective, ethics tend to limit the advancement of psychological science. Since there are many guidelines and rules that have to be followed, researchers do not have full control over their participants. This sometimes hinders and impedes the experimentation process. Furthermore, obtaining the necessary license for this kind of research could be time-consuming, which can be used for the study itself (BPS, 2008). Scientists should accept and follow the limitations brought about by ethical guidelines because these guidelines only give due importance to the life of the participants. The main justification for these research studies is that the findings obtained from these would contribute to the knowledge and information on various fields of discipline and help improve the lives of individuals. This gives such studies an objective that is morally good (National Academy of Sciences, 2006). Hence, scientists should value the lives of the people they claim to help. Lastly, the one responsible in identifying the parameters of the participants’ protection are competent organizations that are familiar with the field of study being researched. In the case of the United States, the American Psychological Association (APA) (2008) is an organization that represents the psychologists in the U. S. APA (2008) implements an ethics code that every member of the organization must adhere to. References American Psychological Association. (2008). APA Ethics Office. Retrieved September 15, 2008, from http://www. apa. org/ethics/.British Psychological Society. (2008). Ethics. Scienceaid. co. uk. Retrieved September 15, 2008, from http://scienceaid. co. uk/psychology/approaches/ethics. html. National Academy of Sciences. (2006). Scientific and ethical justification for using animals in research. Online Ethics Center for Engineering. Retrieved September 15, 2008, from http://www. onlineethics. org/cms/16216. aspx. University of Alberta. (2008). Human Ethics, Biohazards, and Animal Welfare. Retrieved September 15, 2008, from http://www. rso. ualberta. ca/certification. cfm.

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LOVELY PROFESSIONAL UNIVERSITY CAPSTONE PROJECT REPORT TOPIC- ANTIMICROBIAL ACTIVITY OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF HONEY. PROJECT GUIDE- SUBMITTED BY- DR. AKSHAY GARG MOHIT KUMAR DEPT. OF BIOTECHNOLOGY REG. NO. – 10800037 ROLL NO- RB1R07B02 B. TECH BIOTECH. (8th sem. ) DATED- . 17-05-2012 CERTIFICATECertified that this project entitled â€Å"anti microbial activity of different types of honey † submitted by MOHIT KUMAR , students of biotechnology Department, Lovely Professioal University, Phagwara Punjab in the partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of Bachelors of Technology (biotechnology) Degree of LPU, is a record of student’s own study carried under my supervision & guidance. This report has not been submitted to any other university or institution for the award of any degree.Date: 17/5/2012 Name of Project Guide Dr. Akshay Garg DECLARATION I, MOHIT KUMAR, student of B. Tech Biotechnology under Department of Biotechnology of Lovely Professional Unive rersity, Punjab, hereby declare that all the information furnished in this dissertation / capstone project report is based on my own intensive research and is genuine. This dissertation / report does not, to the best of my knowledge, contain part of my work which has been submitted for the award of my degree either of this niversity or any other university without proper citation. Date – 17/5/2012 Investigator- MOHIT KUMAR Regd. No. 10800037 Acknowledgement Any attempt at any level can't be satisfactorily completed without the support and guidance of learned people in my capstone projectâ€Å"Antimicrobial activity of different types of honey†.I would like to express my immense gratitude to my guide Dr. Akshay Garg for his constant support and motivation that has encouraged me to come up with this project. I also would like to thanks my group member who helped me in my project. MOHIT KUMAR ABSTRACT Honey is a traditional topical treatment for infected wounds. It can be effective on antibiotic-resistant strains of bacteria. Several local brands of honey(Dabur) collected from different sources is used in this study. Also the honey is collected from various apiaries from Pathankot(Punjab) and Saharanpur (Up).The bacterial culture were taken from the laboratory of the Lovely professional University and was revived in nutrient broth media and then sub-cultured in nutrient agar media. The method used to test this antibiotic sensitivity of honey was done with the help of Kirby Bauer method . Marked variations were observed in the antibacterial activity of these honey samples. Bacterial species used were Bacillus subtilis ,E. coli. , S. aureus and Burkholderia spp. The zone of inhibition produced against different bacteria using honey of different concentration are as follows: E. oli (pathankot sample): 100% = 2. 6cm, 75%= 1. 9cm, 50%= 1. 7cm,and 25%= 1. 2cm; E. coli (dabur sample): 100% = 2. 2cm, 75%= 1. 6cm, 50%= 1. 3cm, and 25%= 1. 1cm; E. coli (sahar anpur sample): 100% = 2. 8cm, 75%= 2. 4cm, 50%= 2. 2cm, and 25%= 1. 7cm; B. subtilis (pathankot): 100% = 3. 0cm, 75%= 2. 7cm, 50%= 2. 7cm, and 25%= 2. 5cm; B. subtilis (dabur): 100% = 2. 7cm, 75%= 2. 5cm, 50%= 2. 4cm, and 25%= 2. 2cm; B. subtilis (saharanpur):100% = 3. 2cm, 75%= 2. 7cm, 50%= 2. 3cm, and 25%= 1. 5cm; Burkholderia spp. (pathankot): 100% = 2. 1cm, 75%= 1. 9cm, 50%= 1. 6cm, and 25%= 1. 4cm; Burkholderia spp. dabur): 100% = 2. 4cm, 75%= 1. 7cm, 50%= 1. 5cm, and 25%=1. 2cm; Burkholderia spp. (saharanpur):100% = 2. 5cm, 75%= 1. 9cm, 50%= 1. 7cm, and 25%=1. 4cm; S. aureus (pathankot):100%=2. 1cm, 75%= 1. 7cm, 50%= 1. 4cm, and 25%=1. 2cm; S. aureus (dabur):100% =3. 0cm, 75%= 2. 7cm, 50%= 2. 2cm, and 25%=1. 8cm; S. aureus (saharanpur): 100% = 2. 9cm, 75%= 2. 5cm, 50%= 2. 0cm, and 25%=1. 6cm; Zones of inhibition of different treatment groups were measured by agar-well-diffusion assay and compared with control. The comparison of honey sample with distilled water control had pro ved it significant.CONTENTS PAGE 1. INTRODUCTION 7 1. 1) Honey as antibacterial agent 7 1. OBJECTIVE 9 2. LITERATURE REVIEWS 10 3. 1 TYPES OF HONEY 10 3. 2 COMPONENTS OF HONEY 11 3. MATERIALS AND METHODS 15 4. MATERIAL 15 4. 2 METHOD 16 4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 19 5. REFERENCES 32 1. ) INTRODUCTION Honey is a sweet food made by bees using nectar from flowers. The Honey is a sweet, viscous fluid produced by bees from the collection of nectar, primarily from flowers. It is considered to be a natural syrup. The Nectar is gathered by the bees and is slowly transformed into honey, through a long rocess involving the addition of enzymes and the gradual reduction of moisture. Honey is a rich source of carbohydrates mainly Fructose and Glucose. The chemical composition of honey varies depending on the plant source, season and production methods. Therefore the Colour, Concentration and Compounds vary depending on the floral sources. Other compounds which can be found in Honey include Pr oteins and acids such as Gluconic Acid (C6H11O7, also known as 2,3,4,5,6- pentahydroxyhexanoic Acid), Minerals and Anti-Oxidants such as Hydrogen Peroxide (H202) and Vitamins (B6 and B12), (BD.Yates et. al. 1996). Honey has a low pH and a low moisture content, which is usually on average about 17 percent. The Gluconic Acid in honey is produced when bees secrete Glucose Oxidase, while processing the nectar, this give honey a low pH. There are many varieties of honey from around the world which come in three main types which are liquid, whipped and comb. Several local brands of honey(Dabur) collected from different sources is used in this study. Also the honey is collected from various apiaries from Pathankot(Punjab) and Saharanpur (Up) .Each of these honey’s were chosen because they are organic and readily available in health food stores 1. 1) The Antibacterial Effects of Honey The honeys are shown to have antibacterial properties, in particular Manuka honey. Manuka Honey has had extensive research done on it. It has been shown in many studies that Manuka Honey has antimicrobial effects (Barret J. , et. al, 2005; Coumbes A. L. , et. al. 2004; Mundo, M A. 2004). The Mechanism of Antibacterial Properties Honey has many natural properties which enable it to inhibit bacteria.These properties include, a low pH which is in the range of pH 3. 2 to 4. 5, approximately 3. 9 which is due to its content of acidic compounds mainly Gluconic acid as stated above. A low pH is inhibitory to most bacteria. Since most bacteria live in environments around pH 7, the pH of honey could inhibit the bacteria (Barrett, J et. al. al 2005). This is because pH affects the way large proteins such as enzymes work. Which causes the shape of enzymes to change, which then alters the overall charge, this causes the protein to denature.Honey contains small amounts of Hydrogen peroxide (H202) this varies depending on the honey, it is produced as a result of the enzyme glucose oxidase activ ity in producing Gluconic acid (Mundo, MA. et. al. 2004). C6H12O6 + H2O + O2 > C6H12O7 + H2O2 (glucose oxidase reaction) When honey is used topically (as, for example, a wound dressing), hydrogen peroxide is produced by dilution of the honey with body fluids. As a result, hydrogen peroxide is released slowly and acts as an antiseptic. Hydrogen peroxide is a powerful oxidising agent (Free Radical) which has the ability to damage cells.In an aqueous solution hydrogen peroxide acts like an acid and can oxidise a variety of compounds, by accepting free unpaired electrons. This allows the formation of other free radicals, which then causes a cascade effect. Therefore altering biological structures and therefore damaging cells. Honey is primarily a saturated mixture of two monosaccharide, with a low water activity; most of the water molecules are associated with the sugars and few remain available for microorganisms, so it is a poor environment for their growth.If water is mixed with hone y, it loses its low water activity, and therefore no longer possesses this antimicrobial property. Honey consists of various constituents such as water, carbohydrates, proteins, vitamins, amino acid, energy and minerals. Besides the major ones, there must also be several minor constituents in honey, which may be playing a key role in determining the antimicrobial behaviour of honey. In the past, antimicrobial activity of honey had been reported only by using aqueous solution of honey.It is said that honey possesses antibacterial property but it is not clear whether it is the bulk honey or some fraction of it. The antibacterial properties of honey speed up the growth of new tissue to heal the wound. The bactericidal effect of honey is reported to be dependent on concentration of honey used and the nature of the bacteria Considering the fact that their might be some specific constituents which may be contributing to the antimicrobial behaviour, it was decided to carryout the studies u sing different solvents.The present study therefore deals with the constituents in the different solvents followed by evaluation of extract for their antimicrobial behaviour against certain species of bacteria. 2) OBJECTIVE Based on the above facts, the present study was defined with following objective: 1) To check the antibacterial effect of different honeys on. a. Gram-positive Staphylococcus aureus, b. Gram-negative Escherichia coli, c. Gram-positive Bacillus subtilis, and d. Gram- negative Burkholderia capicium 2) To check the effect of honey on bacterial strains using different-different dilutions. . 100% honey sample b. 75% honey sample c. 50% honey sample d. 25% honey sample 3) To compare the effect of honey and control (Distilled water) on a. Gram-positive Staphylococcus aureus, b. Gram-negative Escherichia coli, c. Gram-positive Bacillus subtilis, and d. Gram- negative Burkholderia capicium 3) LITERATURE REVIEWS Honey has been used with medicinal purposes since ancient tim es and there are reports of its topic use by Ayurvedic medicine, dating back to 2500 b. c. Hippocrates prescribed the use of honey for several indications, including treatment of wounds and gastritis.Its healing properties are mentioned in the Koran and in Bible. Honey is a part of traditional medicine for centuries. The antimicrobial activity of honey is due primarily to hydrogen peroxide produced enzymatically. However, in undiluted honey the acidity is also a significant antimicrobial factor. The pH, ranging from 3. 2 to 4. 5, is low enough to inhibit the development of pathogens, whose optimal pH range situates between 7. 2 and 7. 4. When applied to affected areas of tissue, acidity, osmotic effect and phytochemical factors decrease with dilution; however, the activity of hydrogen peroxide increases from 2. to 50 times. On these values, peroxide acts as an antiseptic, without causing cell damage. The composition of sugars in honeys, from different floral origins, inhibits the de velopment of various intestinal bacteria. All chemical and physical factors make the therapeutic properties of honey unique: fast decline of infections and healing of wounds, quick inflammation recovery, minimizing of wounds, stimulation of angiogenesis, as well as the development of epithelial and granular tissues. Honey to be used with topical medicinal purpose, certain requirements are needed, like being free f herbicides, pesticides, heavy metals and radioactive elements and sterilized to prevent secondary infections. 3. 1) TYPES OF HONEY – ON BASIS OF FLORAL SOURCE- Blended- Most commercially available honey is blended, meaning it is a mixture of two or more honeys differing in floral source, color, flavor, density or geographic origin. Polyfloral – Polyfloral honey, also known as wildflower honey, is derived from the nectar of many types of flowers. The taste may vary from year to year, and the aroma and the flavor can be more or less intense, depending on which bloomings are prevalent.Monofloral- Monofloral honey is made primarily from the nectar of one type of flower. Different monofloral honeys have a distinctive flavor and color because of differences between their principal nectar sources. To produce monofloral honey, beekeepers keep beehives in an area where the bees have access to only one type of flower. Honeydew honey- Instead of taking nectar, bees can take honeydew, the sweet secretions of aphids or other plant sap-sucking insects. Honeydew honey is very dark brown in color, with a rich fragrance of stewed fruit or fig jam, and is not sweet like nectar honeys. . 2) COMPOSITION OF HONEY Carbohydrates Unsurprisingly, these comprise the major portion of honey – about 82%. The carbohydrates present are the monosaccharide fructose (38. 2%) and glucose (31%); and disaccharides (~9%) sucrose, maltose, isomaltose, maltulose, turanose and kojibiose. There are also some oligosaccharides present (4. 2%), including erlose, theanderose and panose, formed from incomplete breakdown of the higher saccharides present in nectar and honeydew. Proteins and Amino Acids.Honey contains a number of enzymes, including invertase, which converts sucrose to glucose and fructose; amylase, which breaks starch down into smaller units; glucose oxidase, which converts glucose to gluconolactone, which in turn yields gluconic acid and hydrogen peroxide; catalase, which breaks down the peroxide formed by glucose oxidase to water and oxygen; and acid phosphorylase, which removes inorganic phosphate from organic phosphates. Honey also contains eighteen free amino acids, of which the most abundant is proline. Vitamins, Minerals and AntioxidantsHoney contains trace amounts of the B vitamins riboflavin, niacin, folic acid, pantothenic acid and vitamin B6. It also contains ascorbic acid (vitamin C), and the minerals calcium, iron, zinc, potassium, phosphorous, magnesium, selenium, chromium and manganese. The main group of antioxidants in hon ey are the flavonoids, of which one, pinocembrin, is unique to honey and bee propolis. Ascorbic acid, catalase and selenium are also antioxidants. Generally speaking, the darker the honey, the greater its antioxidising properties. Other compoundsHoney also contains organic acids such as acetic, butanoic, formic, citric, succinic, lactic, malic, pyroglutamic and gluconic acids, and a number of aromatic acids. The main acid present is gluconic acid, formed in the breakdown of glucose by glucose oxidase. Honey also contains hydroxymethylfurfural, a natural product of the breakdown of simple sugars below pH 5. According to studies done by Patricia E. Lusby et al Twelve of the 13 bacteria were inhibited by all honeys used in this study with only Serratia marcescens and the yeast Candida albicans not inhibited by the honeys.Little or no antibacterial activity was seen at honey concentrations 1%, with minimal inhibition at 5%. No honey was able to produce complete inhibition of bacterial g rowth. Although Medi honey and manuka had the overall best activity, the locally produced honeys had equivalent inhibitory activity for some, but not all, bacteria. He then postulated that honeys other than those commercially available as antibacterial honeys can have equivalent antibacterial activity. These newly identified antibacterial honeys may prove to be a valuable source of future therapeutic honeys. According to Peter C.Molan (2001), honey may be the â€Å"natural cure† for most bacterial infections that could replace man-made antibiotics. Researchers say that an enzyme in the honey turns into a tiny  amount hydrogen peroxide when combined with bodily fluids killing nearby bacteria. Honey also causes an increase in lymphocyte and  phagocyte activity (Cooper et al. , 2011). The honeys are shown to have antibacterial properties, in particular Manuka honey. Manuka Honey has had extensive research done on it. It has been shown in many studies that Manuka Honey has an timicrobial effects (Barret J. , et. al, 2005; Coumbes A. L. , et. al. 2004; Mundo, MA. 2004).In this study the antibacterial activity of the five honeys were compared, the Manuka honey was used as a positive control. The nonperoxide antibiotic activity is due to methylglyoxal (MGO) and an unidentified synergistic component. Most honeys contain very low levels of MGO, but manuka honey contains very high levels. The presence of the synergist in manuka honey more than doubles MGO antibacterial activity. In vitro antibacterial activity of raw and commercially available honey was tested against Gram-positive bacteria (Staphylococcus aureus) and Gram-negative bacteria (Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Shigella spp. nd Salmonella spp. ). Both types of honey showed antibacterial activity against test organisms with the zone of inhibition ranging from 8. 13 to 30. 85 mm, while E. coli, S. aureus, and Shigella spp. showed sensibility towards both types of Honey. Both types of honey showed no effects on Salmonella spp. The potency of honey at 100%concentration was found to be higher than all other concentrations tested. However, no effect was observed at concentration of 6. 25% v/v honey in the case of both samples(Patricia E. Lusby 2004).To study the antimicrobial activity of honey, 60 samples of various botanical origin were evaluated antimicrobial activities against 16 clinical pathogens and their respective reference strains. The bioassay applied for determining the antimicrobial effect employs the well-agar diffusion method and the estimation of minimum active dilution which produces a 1 mm diameter inhibition zone. Streptococcus pyogenes,Bacillus cereus and Bacillus subtilis were proven to be up to 60% more resistant than their equal reference strains thus emphasizing the variability in the antibacterial effect of honey and the need for further research (C.Voidarou 2010). Natural products, either as pure compounds or as standardized plant extracts, provid e unlimited opportunities for new drugs because of the ready availability of chemical diversity (Cos et al. , 2006). Honey and lemon-honey are traditional remedies in the Middle East and China and for many centuries and have been used in the treatment and prevention of the common cold and various upper respiratory tract infections (Molan, 1992; Zulma ; Lulat, 1989). Antibacterial activity of the honeys was assayed using standard well diffusion methods. oncluded that the sandal wood from different sources and mixture of of – and -santanols were highly effective against gram negative bacteria including Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Klebsiella pneumoniae and as well as yeast Candida albicans. The present work gives strong evidence of antibacterial activities of honey, sandal oil and black pepper (Sheikh Ahmad 2002). In general, all types of honey have high sugar content as well as low water content and acidity, which prevent microbial growth.Osmotic effect, effect of pH and hydrogen peroxide are represented as an â€Å"inhibition† factor in honey (Postmes et al. , 1993). Most types of honey generate hydrogen peroxide when diluted because of the activation of the enzyme glucose oxidase, which oxidizes glucose to gluconic acid and hydrogen peroxide (Schepartz and Subers, 1964). Hydrogen peroxide is the major contributor to the antimicrobial activity of honey,and the different concentrations of this compound indifferent honeys result in their variable antimicrobial effects (Molan, 1992).Moreover, non peroxide factors also play critical role. The content of non peroxide factors are related to the floral source and sometimes account for the major part of the antibacterial activity in honey(Molan and Russell, 1988). Forty samples of different honey types (Acacia, Ziziphus , Brassica and Citrus) were collected from different areas of Pakistan and analyzed for moisture, pH, total acidity, ash, electrical conductivity, hydroxyl methyl furfural (HMF), sucrose, total sugars, invert sugar, protein, proline contents as well as macro and micro elements.The variation in composition of honey samples was observed due to different types of flora. Likewise, a significant level (P ; 0. 05) of ash, electric conductivity, sucrose, total sugar as well as macro and micro elements was also found in these honey types. Different formulations of honey has significantly inhibited growth of pathogenic microorganisms, Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Candida albicans and Aspergillus niger when compared to control group, which is an evidence that honey is a therapeutic agent being used since ancient time throughout the world. Feng et. al. 1994) The discrepancy in the observed antibacterial activity can be due to several reasons. One possibility might be related to the differences in susceptibility of each species of microorganism to the antibacterial activity of honey used. Similar observations are reported by others (Nzeako and Hamdi 2000; Ceyhan and Ugur 2001; Taormina et al. 2001). As reported by others (Melissa et al. 2004) dilution of honey enhances hydrogen peroxide mediated antibacterial activity may explain some of the discrepancies of observed with the antibacterial activity of these honey.The presence of unstable putative agents and/or thermolabile antibacterial agent(s) could also be inactivated during the experimental procedure and thus may be considered as possible explanation of the observed insensitivity of some honey samples found in the preliminary study. 4. ) MATERIALS AND METHOD 4. 1) Materials Several local brands of honey and Dabur honey collected from different sources is used in this study. Also the honey is collected from various apiaries from- Pathankot(Punjab) and Saharanpur (Up). In the antibacterial study, several bacterial species known to be pathogenic to human such as E. oli. , S. aureus and Burkholderia capicium and Bacillus subtilis was used. These strains were obtained from biote chnology lab. in accordance to given requirement. Glass wares used:- Conical flask (500 milliliter), Conical flask (100 milliliter), Petri plates, glass rod, test tubes spreader, glass beakers, Glass slides and cover slip, Plastic wares used:- Beakers, Conical flask (500 milliliter), Conical flask (100 milliliter), dropper, appendrof tubes (2ml), auto pipette tips (10? l, 100? l, and 1000? l) Instruments used:- Hot air oven, Autoclave machine, Laminar air flow hood, Incubator, Microwave ovenOther material used:- Sprit lamp, cork borer,test tube stand, auto pipette (10? l, 100? l, and 1000? l), parafilm wax,,filter paper Chemicals used:- Nutrient agar, nutrient broth, Mueller Hinton agar, 70% Methanol, 100% methanol, ethyl alcohol ,sodium chloride. 4. 2) Methods Physicochemical study: Appearance of different honeys was observed. pH is determined using conventional procedure like using ph scale. Antibacterial study: Antibacterial study was carried out in steps. In the first step, an i n vitro screening will be carried out using either disc diffusion or well diffusion method.Well diffusion was carried out using plate diffusion, which I preferred. Preparation of test materials: Test materials will be prepared by diluting each honey at different dilutions, 25 ? l/100 ? l, 50 ? l/100 ? l, 75 ? l/100 ? l and one with no dilution. Moreover, net honey was also used as test material. All dilutions were carried out with double distilled and deionised sterilized water. 3. 2. 1) Source of bacterial strains The E. coli. , S. aureus, Burkholderia capicium and Bacillus subtilis were revived from the stock available in the various Biotechnology laboratories of Lovely Professional University, Phagwara (Punjab), India.Sub-culturing of bacterial strains in nutrient broth:- 100ml nutrient broth was prepared and ten test tubes were taken, autoclaved, and after this the Bacterial strains was inoculated in the nutrient broth in different test tubes and then incubated for 24 hours in i ncubator . Sub-culturing of the bacterial strains on solid media:- For All Bacterial strains:- 5. 6g of Nutrient agar was added to the 200ml of purified water. Then solution was heated and boiled for 1 minute to completely dissolve the powder. Then media was autoclaved.Then media(10-15 ml) was poured in Petri plates. Then Bacterial strains were added to media. Then Petri plate were kept in incubator for 18-48 hours at 37 degree C. Saline preparation : Take . 58g of Nacl and dissolve it to 10ml of distled water and make saline before 15 min of spreading and take the colonies from the nutrient agar plates and mix properly in the saline. Nutrient agar medium for antimicrobial testing: 7g of nutrient agar medium was added to the 250 ml of distilled water and heated for 1 minute to complete dissolve medium then autoclaved .After that pouring the petriplates and left it 20 minute for solidify medium and make wells , after solidify put the different Honeys in the wells and kept it to incub ate for 18-48 hours at 37C. Testing of antibacterial activity using agar well diffusion method: The bacterial strains were inoculated into 10 ml of sterile nutrient broth, and incubated at 37  °C for 18 h. Each culture was then spreaded on the surface of sterile nutrient agar plate and also pour-plated in nutrient agar media to perform the test in triplet, one with the control and the other two ith the test sample. Making the wells With the help of a cork borer make wells in the agar carefully without tearing the gel. In two agar plate of all four sets, four wells were prepared with the help of sterilized cork borer. Then with the hep of micropipette put 100 micro litre of honey sample into the wellIn the wells of two plates of each set, samples of following concentrations: (1) 100% sterile Honey(2) 75% sterile Honey(3) 50% sterile Honey and (4) 25% sterile Honey; were added by using micropipette. Also in the a well water was added as negative control.Then with the help of micropi pette put 100 micro litre of honey sample into the well Replace the lid of the plate between putting sample into wells to minimize exposure to air-borne contaminants. Cover the lid tightly with paraffin tape to avoid contamination. Incubation of the plates . A temperature range of 35 °C  ± 2 °C is required for 24-48 hours. Do not incubate plates in carbon dioxide  as this will decrease the pH of the agar and result in errors due to incorrect pH of the media. Measuring zone of inhibition 1.Following incubation, measure the zone sizes  to the nearest millimeter  using a ruler or caliper; include the diameter of the well in the measurement . 2. All measurements were made with the unaided eye while viewing the back of the petri dish. Hold the plate a few inches above a black, nonreflecting surface illuminated with reflected light . 3. Record the zone size on the recording sheet. Figure1: Testing of antibacterial activity using agar well diffusion method 4. )RESULTS Sub-cultu ring of bacterial strains in nutrient broth:- Figure2: Culture E. coli. , S. ureus and Burkholderia capicium and Bacillus subtilis in Nutrient broth media. Sub-culturing of the bacterial strains on solid media:- Fig. –3 E. coli subcultured on nutrient agar Fig. – 4 B. Subtilis subcultured on nutrient agar Testing of antibacterial activity using agar well diffusion method: Fig 5 : No antibacterial activity seen as no honey is poured (taken as negative control) in which E. coli is grown Fig 6 : No antibacterial activity seen as no honey is poured (taken as negative control) in which Bacillus subtilis is grown ANTIMICROBIAL ACTIVITY OF VARIOUS HONEY’S AGAINST E. coliFIG. 7 – ZONES OF INHIBITION BY VARIOUS DILUTIONS OF HONEY(pathankot sample) IN E. coli: 100% = 2. 6cm, 75%= 1. 9cm, 50%= 1. 7cm,and 25%= 1. 2cm FIG. 8– ZONES OF INHIBITION BY VARIOUS DILUTIONS OF HONEY (dabur sample) IN E. coli : 100% = 2. 2cm, 75%= 1. 6cm, 50%= 1. 3cm, and 25%= 1. 1cm FI G. 9– ZONES OF INHIBITION BY VARIOUS DILUTIONS OF HONEY (saharanpur sample) IN E. coli: 100% = 2. 8cm, 75%= 2. 4cm, 50%= 2. 2cm, and 25%= 1. 7cm; ANTIMICROBIAL ACTIVITY OF VARIOUS HONEY’S AGAINST B. subtilis FIG. 10– ZONES OF INHIBITION BY VARIOUS DILUTIONS OF HONEY IN B. subtilis (pathankot sample): 100% = 3. cm, 75%= 2. 7cm, 50%= 2. 7cm, and 25%= 2. 5cm FIG. 11– ZONES OF INHIBITION BY VARIOUS DILUTIONS OF HONEY in B. subtilis (dabur sample): 100% = 2. 7cm, 75%= 2. 5cm, 50%= 2. 4cm, and 25%= 2. 2cm; FIG. 12– ZONES OF INHIBITION BY VARIOUS DILUTIONS OF HONEY in B. subtilis (saharanpur):100% = 3. 2cm, 75%= 2. 7cm, 50%= 2. 3cm, and 25%= 1. 5cm ANTIMICROBIAL ACTIVITY OF VARIOUS HONEY’S AGAINST Burkholderia capacium FIG. 13– ZONES OF INHIBITION BY VARIOUS DILUTIONS OF HONEY in Burkholderia capacium (pathankot sample): 100% = 2. 1cm, 75%= 1. 9cm, 50%= 1. 6cm, and 25%= 1. 4cm; FIG. 4– ZONES OF INHIBITION BY VARIOUS DILUTIONS OF HONEY Burkholderia capacium (dabur): 100% = 2. 4cm, 75%= 1. 7cm, 50%= 1. 5cm, and 25%=1. 2cm FIG. 15– ZONES OF INHIBITION BY VARIOUS DILUTIONS OF HONEY Burkholderia capacium (saharanpur):100% = 2. 5cm, 75%= 1. 9cm, 50%= 1. 7cm, and 25%=1. 4cm; ANTIMICROBIAL ACTIVITY OF VARIOUS HONEY’S AGAINST S. Aureus FIG. 16– ZONES OF INHIBITION BY VARIOUS DILUTIONS OF HONEY S. aureus (pathankot):100%=2. 1cm, 75%= 1. 7cm, 50%= 1. 4cm, and 25%=1. 2cm FIG. 17– ZONES OF INHIBITION BY VARIOUS DILUTIONS OF HONEY S. aureus (dabur):100% =3. 0cm, 75%= 2. 7cm, 50%= 2. 2cm, and 25%=1. cm FIG. 18– ZONES OF INHIBITION BY VARIOUS DILUTIONS OF HONEY IN S. aureus (saharanpur): 100% = 2. 9cm, 75%= 2. 5cm, 50%= 2. 0cm, and 25%=1. 6cm Appearance Appearance of each of honey brand was examined and it was observed that honey were brown to dark brown in color, whereas other honey were golden yellow in color. Dabur honey- golden colour,transparent Pathankot sample – golden colour wit h sufficient transparency Saharanpur sample – dark yellow colour with zero transparency The transparency is due to processing of honey,while less transparent samples are unprocessed and taken directly from bee hive.Table 1- Diameter of the Zone of Inhibition by different concentration of Pathankot honey sample on different Bacterial strains. Bacterial strains| Zone of Inhibition (in cm)| | Control(sterile DistilledWater)| 100%Honey sample| 75%Honey sample| 50%Honey sample| 25%Honey sample| E. coli. | 0. 0| 2. 6| 1. 9| 1. 7| 1. 2| Bacillus subtilis| 0. 0| 3. 0| 2. 7| 2. 7| 2. 5| S. aureus| 0. 0| 2. 1| 1. 7| 1. 4| 1. 2| Burkholderia capicium| 0. 0| 2. 1| 1. 9| 1. 5| 1. 4| Table2- Diameter of the Zone of Inhibition by different concentration of dabur honey sample on different Bacterial strains.Bacterial strains| Zone of Inhibition (in cm) | | Control(sterile DistilledWater)| 100%Honey sample| 75%Honey sample| 50%Honey sample| 25%Honey sample| E. coli. | 0. 0| 2. 2| 1. 6| 1. 3| 1 . 1| Bacillus subtilis| 0. 0| 2. 7| 2. 5| 2. 4| 2. 2| S. aureus| 0. 0| 3. 0| 2. 7| 2. 2| 1. 8| Burkholderia capicium| 0. 0| 2. 4| 1. 7| 1. 5| 1. 2| Table 1- Diameter of the Zone of Inhibition by different concentration of Saharanpur honey sample on different Bacterial strains. Bacterial strains| Zone of Inhibition (in cm)| | Control(sterile DistilledWater)| 100%Honey sample| 75%Honey sample| 50%Honey sample| 25%Honey sample| E. oli. | 0. 0| 2. 8| 2. 4| 2. 3| 1. 7| Bacillus subtilis| 0. 0| 3. 2| 2. 7| 2. 3| 1. 5| S. aureus| 0. 0| 2. 9| 2. 5| 2. 0| 1. 6| Burkholderia capicium| 0. 0| 2. 5| 1. 9| 1. 7| 1. 4| In the preliminary screening process was observed that some honey brands have more while some other have less antibacterial activity. Some honey showed antibacterial effect against E. Coli and some showed strongest activity against Bacillus subtilis ,S. aureus and Burkholderia capicium. Clear zones of inhibition were produced by concentrated without dilution.Through the analysis of average values of the diameters of each honey, it is possible to infer a possible pattern in which commercial honeys, such as DABUR honey, have a greater average diameter while the homemade honeys from different regions, have a lower average diameter even at less concentrations, but the best antimicrobial activity was shown by Saharanpur honey sample with was collected directly from the apiary without any processing and it showed clear and large inhibition zones for all bacterial strains which were used for this test.Though after the dilutions were made, the low concentrated samples of Saharanpur honey resulted in rather poor antimicrobial activity. The wells in which water was loaded shoed absolutely no antimicrobial activity which was used as negative control. The results also showed that lower concentration of honey made through dilution shows less antimicrobial activity than concentrated ones. Thus honey are definitely effective against the bacterial strains at all concentration s. 6) REFERENCES Bibi S, Husain SZ, Malik RN (2008). Pollen analysis and heavy metals detection in honey samples from seven selected countries. Pak. J. Bot. 40(2): 507-516 * Cooper R. A. , Molan P. C. , Harding K. G. (1999) Antibacterial activity of honey against strains of Staphylococcus aureus from infected wounds, J. R. Soc. Med. 92, 283–285. * Cooper R. How does honey heal wounds? In: Munn P, Jones R,editors. Honey and Healing. UK: International Bee Research Association; 2001. * de Jong H. J. 1999) The Land of Corn and Honey:The keeping of stingless bees (meliponiculture) in the ethno-ecological environment of Yucatan (Mexico) and El Salvador, Utrecht UniversityPress, Netherlands, 423 p. * Kamal A, Raza A, Rashid N, Hammed TG, Lami M, Gureshin MA,Nasim K (2002). Comparative study of Honey collected from flora of Pakistan. On Line J. Biol. Sci. 23(9): 626-627. * Khalil MI, Shahjahan M, Absar N (2006). Glycemic Response and Lycemic Index of Bangladeshi Honey in Type 2 Diabe tic Patients. Malaysian. J. Pharm. Sci. 4(1): 13–19. * Lusby PE, Coombes AL, Wilkinson JM.Bactericidal activity of different honeys against pathogenic bacteria. Arch Med Res 2005; 36: 464-467 * Molan P. C. (1997) The antibacterial activity of honey. The nature of the antibacterial activity,Bee World 73, 5–28. * Mundo MA, Padilla-Zakour OI, Worobo RW. Growth inhibition of foodborne pathogens and food spoilage organisms by select raw honeys. Int J Food Microbiol 2004; 97: 1-8. * Tumin N, Halim NA, Shahjahan M, Noor Izani NJ, Sattar MA,Khan AH, et al. Antibacterial activity of local Malaysian honey. Malaysian J Pharma Sci 2005; 3: 1-10.

The Associative and Commutative Properties

The Associative and Commutative Properties There are several mathematical properties that are used in statistics and probability; two of these, the commutative and associative properties, are generally associated with the basic arithmetic of integers, rationals, and real numbers, though they also show up in more advanced mathematics. These properties- the commutative and the associative- are very similar and can be easily mixed up. For that reason, it is important to understand the difference between the two. The commutative property concerns the order of certain mathematical operations. For a binary operation- one that involves only two elements- this can be shown by the equation a b b a. The operation is commutative because the order of the elements does not affect the result of the operation. The associative property, on the other hand, concerns the grouping of elements in an operation. This can be shown by the equation (a b) c a (b c). The grouping of the elements, as indicated by the parentheses, does not affect the result of the equation. Note that when the commutative property is used, elements in an equation are rearranged. When the associative property is used, elements are merely regrouped. Commutative Property Simply put, the commutative property states that the factors in an equation can be rearranged freely without affecting the outcome of the equation. The commutative property, therefore, concerns itself with the ordering of operations, including the addition and multiplication of real numbers, integers, and rational numbers. For example, the numbers 2, 3, and 5 can be added together in any order without affecting the final result: 2 3 5 10 3 2 5 10 5 3 2 10 The numbers can likewise be multiplied in any order without affecting the final result: 2 x 3 x 5 30 3 x 2 x 5 30 5 x 3 x 2 30 Subtraction and division, however, are not operations that can be commutative because the order of operations is important. The three numbers above cannot, for example, be subtracted in any order without affecting the final value: 2 - 3 - 5 -6 3 - 5 - 2 -4 5 - 3 - 2 0 As a result, the commutative property can be expressed through the equations a b b a and a x b b x a. No matter the order of the values in these equations, the results will always be the same. Associative Property The associative property states that the grouping of factors in an operation can be changed without affecting the outcome of the equation. This can be expressed through the equation a (b c) (a b) c. No matter which pair of values in the equation is added first, the result will be the same. For example, take the equation 2 3 5. No matter how the values are grouped, the result of the equation will be 10: (2 3) 5 (5) 5 10 2 (3 5) 2 (8) 10 As with the commutative property, examples of operations that are associative include the addition and multiplication of real numbers, integers, and rational numbers. However, unlike the commutative property, the associative property can also apply to matrix multiplication and function composition. Like commutative property equations, associative property equations cannot contain the subtraction of real numbers. Take, for example, the arithmetic problem (6 – 3) – 2 3 – 2 1; if we change the grouping of the parentheses, we have 6 – (3 – 2) 6 – 1 5, which changes the final result of the equation. What Is the Difference? We can tell the difference between the associative and the commutative property by asking the question, â€Å"Are we changing the order of the elements, or are we changing the grouping of the elements?† If the elements are being reordered, then the commutative property applies. If the elements are only being regrouped, then the associative property applies. However, note that the presence of parentheses alone does not necessarily mean that the associative property applies. For instance: (2 3) 4 4 (2 3) This equation is an example of the commutative property of addition of real numbers. If we pay careful attention to the equation, though, we see that only the order of the elements has been changed, not the grouping. For the associative property to apply, we would have to rearrange the grouping of the elements as well: (2 3) 4 (4 2) 3

The Unsavory History of Nutmeg Spice

The Unsavory History of Nutmeg Spice Today, we sprinkle ground nutmeg on our espresso drinks, add it to eggnog, or mix it into pumpkin pie filling. Most people probably dont particularly wonder about its origins, no doubt - it comes from the spice aisle in the supermarket, right? And fewer still stop to consider the tragic and bloody history behind this spice. Over the centuries, however, tens of thousands of people have died in the pursuit of nutmeg. What Is Nutmeg? Nutmeg comes from the seed of the Myristica frangans tree, a tall evergreen species native to the Banda Islands, which are part of Indonesias Moluccas or Spice Islands. The inner kernel of the nutmeg seed can be ground into nutmeg, while the aril (the outer lacy covering) yields another spice, mace. Nutmeg has long been valued not only as a flavoring for food  but also for its medicinal properties. In fact, when taken in large enough doses nutmeg is a hallucinogen, thanks to a psychoactive chemical called myristicin, which is related to mescaline and amphetamine. People have known about the interesting effects of nutmeg for centuries; the 12th-century abbess Hildegard of Bingen wrote about it, for one. Nutmeg on the Indian Ocean Trade Nutmeg was well-known in the countries bordering the Indian Ocean, where it featured in Indian cooking and traditional Asian medicines. Like other spices, nutmeg had the advantage of being light-weight compared with pottery, jewels, or even silk cloth, so trading ships and camel caravans could easily carry a fortune in nutmeg. For the inhabitants of the Banda Islands, where the nutmeg trees grew, the Indian Ocean trade routes ensured a steady business and allowed them a comfortable living. It was the Arab and Indian traders, however, who got very wealthy from selling the spice all around the rim of the Indian Ocean. Nutmeg in Europe's Middle Ages As mentioned above, by the Middle Ages, wealthy people in Europe knew about nutmeg  and coveted it for its medicinal properties. Nutmeg was considered a hot food according to the theory of humors, taken from ancient Greek medicine, which still guided European physicians at the time. It could balance cold foods like fish and vegetables. Europeans believed that nutmeg had the power to ward off viruses like the common cold; they even thought that it could prevent the bubonic plague. As a result, the spice was worth more than its weight in gold. As much as they treasured nutmeg, however, people in Europe had no clear idea of where it came from. It entered Europe through the port of Venice, carried there by Arab traders who portaged it from the Indian Ocean across the Arabian Peninsula and into the Mediterranean world... but the ultimate source remained a mystery. Portugal Seizes the Spice Islands In 1511, a Portuguese force under Afonso de Albuquerque seized the Molucca Islands. By early the next year, the Portuguese had extracted the knowledge from the locals that the Banda Islands were the source of nutmeg and mace, and three Portuguese ships sought out these fabled Spice Islands. The Portuguese did not have the manpower to physically control the islands, but they were able to break the Arab monopoly on the spice trade. The Portuguese ships filled their holds with nutmeg, mace, and cloves, all purchased for a reasonable price from the local growers. Over the next century, Portugal tried to build a fort on the main Bandanaira Island  but was driven off by the Bandanese. Finally, the Portuguese simply bought their spices from middlemen in Malacca. Dutch Control of Nutmeg Trade The Dutch soon followed the Portuguese to Indonesia, but they proved unwilling to simply join the queue of spice shippers. Traders from the Netherlands provoked the Bandanese by demanding spices in return for useless and unwanted goods, like thick woolen clothing and damask cloth, which was completely unsuitable for tropical climes. Traditionally, Arab, Indian, and Portuguese traders had offered much more practical items: silver, medicines, Chinese porcelain, copper, and steel. Relations between the Dutch and Bandanese started out sour  and quickly went down-hill. In 1609, the Dutch coerced some Bandanese rulers into signing the Eternal Treaty, granting the Dutch East Indies Company a monopoly on spice trade in the Bandas. The Dutch then strengthened their Bandanaira fortress, Fort Nassau. This was the last straw for the Bandanese, who ambushed and killed the Dutch admiral for the East Indies and about forty of his officers. The Dutch also faced a threat from another European power - the British. In 1615, the Dutch invaded Englands only foothold in the Spice Islands, the tiny, nutmeg-producing islands of Run and Ai, about 10 kilometers from the Bandas. The British forces had to retreat from Ai to the even smaller island of Run. Britain counter-attacked the same day, though, killing 200 Dutch soldiers. A year later, the Dutch attacked again  and besieged the British on Ai. When the British defenders ran out of ammunition, the Dutch overran their position and slaughtered them all. The Bandas Massacre In 1621, the Dutch East India Company decided to solidify its hold on the Banda Islands proper. A Dutch force of unknown size landed on Bandaneira, fanned out, and reported numerous violations of the coercive Eternal Treaty signed in 1609. Using these alleged violations as a pretext, the Dutch had forty of the local leaders beheaded. They then went on to perpetrate genocide against the Bandanese. Most historians believe that the population of the Bandas was around 15,000 before 1621. The Dutch brutally massacred all but about 1,000 of them; the survivors were forced to work as slaves in the nutmeg groves. Dutch plantation-owners took control of the spice orchards  and grew wealthy selling their products in Europe at 300 times the production cost. Needing more labor, the Dutch also enslaved and brought in people from Java and other Indonesian islands. Britain and Manhattan At the time of the Second Anglo-Dutch War (1665-67), however, the Dutch monopoly on nutmeg production was not quite complete. The British still had control of little Run Island, on the fringe of the Bandas. In 1667, the Dutch and British came to an agreement, called the Treaty of Breda. Under its terms, the Netherlands relinquished the far-off and generally useless island of Manhattan, also known as New Amsterdam, in return for the British handing over Run. Nutmeg, Nutmeg Everywhere The Dutch settled down to enjoying their nutmeg monopoly for about a century and a half. However, during the Napoleonic Wars (1803-15), Holland became a part of Napoleons empire  and was thus an enemy of England. This gave the British an excellent excuse to invade the Dutch East Indies once again  and try to pry open the Dutch stranglehold on the spice trade. On August 9, 1810, a British armada attacked the Dutch fort on Bandaneira. After just a few hours of fierce fighting, the Dutch surrendered Fort Nassau, and then the rest of the Bandas. The First Treaty of Paris, which ended this phase of the Napoleonic Wars, restored the Spice Islands to Dutch control in 1814. It could not restore the nutmeg monopoly, however - that particular cat was out of the bag. During their occupation of the East Indies, the British took nutmeg seedlings from the Bandas and planted them in various other tropical places under British colonial control. Nutmeg plantations sprang up in Singapore, Ceylon (now called Sri Lanka), Bencoolen (southwest Sumatra), and Penang (now in Malaysia). From there, they spread to Zanzibar, East Africa and the Caribbean islands of Grenada. With the nutmeg monopoly broken, the price of this once-precious commodity began to plummet. Soon middle-class Asians and Europeans could afford to sprinkle the spice on their holiday baked goods and add it to their curries. The bloody era of the Spice Wars came to an end, and nutmeg took its place as an ordinary occupant of the spice-rack in typical homes... an occupant, though, with an unusually dark and bloody history.

Impact of Telephone Technology on Society Research Paper

Impact of Telephone Technology on Society - Research Paper Example Specifically, the upsurge in 3G connections, sustained by the production of the current data-enabled devices which permit mobile internet connectivity, caused a huge growth in mobile data use. Currently, an examination of the economic influence of this technological transformation has been restricted by data availability. However, Van (2012) used VNI Index data of Cisco for 14 nations to investigate this concern and he found a strong relationship existed between economic growth and mobile data usage per 3G connection. Van also asserts that doubling the use of mobile data causes the GDP per capita to increase by 0.5 percentage points. Although the effects of telephone have fully been realized in developed markets, telephone technology continues to offer strongly assist developing markets. Issa, Isaias & Kommers (2013) who measured the influence of ‘simple’ telephone penetration on Total Factor Productivity of a nation – a parameter of economic productivity which al ways reflects the technological dynamism of an economy – found out that an increase of 10% in telephone penetration upsurges Total Factor Productivity by 4.2% in long run. Telephone technologies add considerably to GDP growth. It is projected that the technology will occasion a 1.8% GDP growth in UK and 24.9% GDP growth in Egypt across 2010-2020. Again, Issa, Isaias & Kommers (2013) claim that the impact will be great in developing nations. They claim that the impact of increasing phone subscriptions, across 10 nations.

NOGO Railroad Case Analysys Form Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

NOGO Railroad Case Analysys Form - Essay Example Dave is wary of Allen’s intentions and is torn between making the required changes and not making those changes. However, the situation is not new to NOGO Railways as it has struggled with the same issues (highlighted later) since its inception. It is only that Dave has now been promoted to such a position where he must address the problems encountered. 2. Problem NOGO Railways faces a myriad of problems which can best be separated as surface-level problems and deeper or micro problems. At the macro level, the company faces an outdated and ill designed system of organizational policies and practices, thereby reflecting a poor HR system. This is the backbone of all other problems such as high debt and resistance to change. Owing to faulty (and biased) recruitment practices, productivity has been low and unnecessary positions have been created for the sake of compensating family and relatives. One such example is that of Fireman’s position whose only task was to take char ge of the engine in the event of assistance required by the engineer (Brown). The major problems facing Dave (and the company) are that employee expenses have been on a rise and that there was friction amongst NOGO’s employees with respect to change management. Next, it is important to analyze the micro level issues that NOGO is faced with. One of these is featherbedding which is defined as the practice of restricting output of work so as to create more jobs and reduce the chances of unemployment. Another problem pertained to the absence of a formal, structured recruitment process that objectively selected candidates with the right ‘fit’ for the job. These faulty hiring procedures gave way to favoritism. This meant that employees whom Dave worked with were related to each other in some way as spouses, children, brothers or cousins. This practice tends to create a disconnected workforce with ties based on their relations and not work. 3. Causes The presence of a u nionized workforce meant that the union acted as a resistance to any changes implemented by the management. This was clearly causing resistance to change which was one of the macro-level problems confronting NOGO. The union terms were guaranteeing complacency and minimizing worker efficiency owing to a contract that workers would get pay for 40 hours of work even if there was no availability of such work (Brown). These contract terms (as settled by the unions) meant that NOGO was covering the living expenses of their away-from-home, overtime employees as well as duplication of tasks such that clerks would have no task to carry out in the presence of telegraph operators. Furthermore, the union as well as improperly crafted contracts provided workers unnecessary cushion of refusing to do a task just because it wasn’t part of their job description. This was directly contributing to the high employee expenses which, again, was one of the major problems facing NOGO. Furthermore, t he lack of HR planning and strategy was at the backbone of a host of problems encountered by the company. For one thing, the lack of HR planning led to overstaffing leading to greater number of employees being hired than was necessary. This bred â€Å"featherbedding†. The employee contract was not designed appropriately with conditions such as prohibition of women clerks to work directly with train and radio communication personnel reducing the