What Is a Communal Family free essay sample

The word commune has various meanings to different people. The term communal family refers to two or more groups of families that live together and share facilities in some form of society. It is actually a form of communal living forum. A communal family is a combination of two or more families living together. It portrays a picture of a huge number of adults and children living together in some form of society. A communal family is two or more families living together and sharing the facilities. Some of these families come together for economical reasons while others are due to similar beliefs and cultures. Families that come together for economical reasons are able to save more money during difficult financial times. Discussion essay – Block pattern Title: Advantages and Disadvantages of communal life for Pacific people C: Communal life for Pacific people L: Advantages/ Disadvantages/ Communal life D: Evaluate (Discuss) Introduction Context: Pacific people Subject: Communal life is very much paramount in the upbringing of younger generations of Pacific community. We will write a custom essay sample on What Is a Communal Family? or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Limited Subject: Communal life usually has a pivotal role in the maturity of individuals. Issue: Is communal life really a player to lead Pacific people to be mature, disciplined and successful or does it also has drastic effects on their life to lead then into failure? Thesis statement: For this reason, this essay will discuss in detail both the arguments that acts against and favoring the communal life for Pacific people. Abstract This essay will discuss the major reasons for the decline in communal living in the Pacific. Firstly the essay examines issues in regards to social change which are migration and conflict of interest. Secondly, the essay will discuss concerns from an economic standpoint where education and employment are considered. Thirdly, the essay will look at cultural issues in regards to Westernization and cultural identity. The essay concludes that the Pacific people need to realise in order for communal life to stay alive, these issues must be dealt with. Countries in the Pacific have their own unique way of living. Communal living is seen to be the traditional way of life in the Pacific. People are bound together by their culture and tradition. Therefore, this way of life is slowly declining and being forgotten due to many major reasons. Some of these major reasons for the decline in communal life within the Pacific are likely due to issues such as social change, economic and culture. Firstly one of the issues for the decline in communal living in the Pacific is social change. Migration is an issue related to social change, people looking for a diverse lifestyle elsewhere plays a major role in the decline in communal life in the Pacific. People want to experience a different way of life from the traditional communal way of living (Stahl Appleyard, 2007). For example, Cook Islanders that still reside in a communal way of living, everything from chores to eating and entertainment are done together with the other members of the family or community, but many are pulling away from this way of life because they prefer to do things on their own.. Also, to consider is the migration of people from a different culture and tradition into the pacific, who will have an influence on the Pacific islanders who may turn away from the communal lifestyle. Communal Life in the Pacific Almost every country is experiencing changes due to today’s modern society. Communal life is the traditional way of living which has advantages from which most people can benefit in any society. This form of living is very common in some parts of the Pacific where most people are bound to be together with their traditions. However, it is important to consider that this traditional way of living is being forgotten today and there are many reasons for this decline in the communal life in the Pacific. The major reasons for the decline are in terms of cultural, social and economic. Firstly, there are cultural issues for the decline in the communal life in the Pacific. To begin with, one of the cultural issues leading to a decline in the communal life today is loss of culture which almost all the people in the society are experiencing. The decline in religious activities, ways of doing, habits, feelings and behavior of identity that had previously tied almost all the people together has caused them to fall apart. For example, in an Indian community in Fiji, the Hindus used to have a religious gathering known as Ramayana where followers of the Hindu â€Å"dharma† would gather together for this special occasion but today this gathering is dieing out in few places. Loss of culture, therefore, leads to a decline in commune way of living. A related aspect to the cultural issues is Westernization which is also one of the major reasons for the decline in the communal life. Strong influence of western cultures has changed the lifestyle of most of the people in many countries where by some people prefer to live as those of western countries do. For example, many Fijian villages were having an intentional community of people living together and sharing common interest in the society such as special gathering in villages when there is a new baby born or eating together when a big feast is held, however, today those traditions are no longer

The red convertible Essay Example

The red convertible Paper Louise Erdrich was born in 1954 in Little Falls, Minnesota. Her father was German American and her mother was a Chippewa Indian. Her early schooling was in a Bureau of Indian Affairs which was a boarding school. She wrote throughout her childhood and majored in creative writing in college. She earned a masters degree in creative writing at Johns Hopkins University in 1979 and then she went to Dartmouth as a writer-in-residence. She met her future husband at Dartmouth, Michael Dorris, who was the anthropology professor and of Native American descent. She married him in 1981. In 1982, she won the Nelson Algren fiction competition with the story The Worlds Greatest Fisherman. This story became the first chapter in her book Love Medicine, which is the first novel in a tetralogy that includes The Beet Queen (1986), Tracks (1988), and Bingo Palace (1994). Edrichs fiction has been noted for its lyrical prose and humor. Love Medicine won the National Book Critics Circle Award along with other awards. The book is a collection of interconnected stories focused on the lives of two Chippewa families. She is best known for her novels about the Chippewa. She also published two respected volumes of poetry, Jacklight (1984) and Baptism of Desire (1989). She had several stories in periodicals like the New Yorker, Harpers Magazine, Atlantic Monthly, and Paris Review. Her nonfiction book, The Blue Jays Dance: A Birth Year (1995), consists mainly of autobiographical recollections and meditations on nature and motherhood. The writing of Erdrich is based on reality situations but she doesnt write a biased opinion about the way the characters are living their lives. We will write a custom essay sample on The red convertible specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on The red convertible specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on The red convertible specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer She doesnt judge them or make their lives out to be more than what they are. Critics have said that her writings reach out to others in very personal ways and throughout all cultures. Change is a major component in all of her writing. One critic, John Purdy, stated that her writings about change are synonymous with death and how it (change) can destroy a life and a person or people. Her writings tell how important our past is and what it can tell about our future. After her tetralogy came the addition of Tales of Burning Love. John Purdy, along with other critics, feel that by understanding her stories of how loss came about and what individuals did to deal with it, it is easier to understand current events, which may be as threatening of past events. It is also learned from the novels that loss doesnt always mean the end it may be the beginning. Another critic, William J. Scheick, had a different perspective than most critics on the four novels. He stated, Louise Erdrichs four novels are collections of loosely connected stories associated more by the generational interaction of the people they concern than by any substantial development of plot. These works lack a conventional structure comprised of a beginning, middle, and end. And instead of decidedly central protagonists, these works present many characters whose memories and identities are as loosely connected as are the stories in which they appear. Later in his critique it is learned that he does respect and appreciate her writing, he just doesnt care for the structure. As you read in her short story The Red Convertible you can clearly see that she wrote about the way that the Chippewa lived in a truthful manner. She includes nature, family and non-family relations in this story as she does in other writings. She uses symbolism in The Red Convertible that relates directly to the Chippewa culture. The title of the story uses the color red and it related to several parts of the story like the river, the car, Red Tomahawk and the Red Sticks. Henry wanted to give the car to Lymon but he didnt want it because he knew that it was a gift and gifts were given by the Chippewa in the event of a death. The represented a curative charm for the brothers. It was something that was supposed to represent Henry and his well being. Lymon thought that if he made sure that Henry did something with the car that he would get better even though he didnt. Henrys dance that is written about is another part of the Chippewa culture that Erdrich often writes about. Dancing is an important part of Native American culture. There seems to be a dance for everything. I think that Henrys dance had to do with the war and how he couldnt deal with being sent to it and now he wanted to die. It is hard to fight an American war when you dont consider yourself to be an American. It is not hard to understand why all cultures enjoy Erdrichs writing. She touches mothers with writings about pregnancy, childbirth, and early infancy. She gets parents to remember raising their own children and the experiences that they had. She focuses on life cycles, which is virtually everything around us because everything has a life cycle. In 1996 she published her first childrens book, Grandmothers Pigeon, a story a stubborn grandmother who leaves her family in the middle of the families vacation and she rides a porpoise back to Greenland. The book has received considerable recognition. Since 1984 she has written or co-authored ten major books, edited Best American Stories of 1993, won numerous literary prizes, and gained a substantial amount of scholarly attention. She did this while raising three adopted children learning disabilities, bearing three daughters, and dealing with the deaths of her oldest, adopted son and two grandparents. In 1996 she was separated from Dorris and on April 10th of 1997 he committed suicide. Today it is said that she and her children are doing well.

Comparison of numbers of organisms In Coniferous And Deciduous Woodlands Essay Example

Comparison of numbers of organisms In Coniferous And Deciduous Woodlands Essay Example Comparison of numbers of organisms In Coniferous And Deciduous Woodlands Paper Comparison of numbers of organisms In Coniferous And Deciduous Woodlands Paper An experiment was done to find out whether there was a difference in the number of organisms in the coniferous and deciduous woodlands. A quadrat of 10m by 10m was used and co-ordinates 5,1 5,2 5,3 5,4 5,5 5,6 5,7 5,8 5,9 5,10 were used because these were exactly in the middle of the quadrat area. Ten samples of leaf litter and ten samples of humus was obtained from each woodland. In the laboratory tullgren funnels were set up, the samples were tested and the organisms were collected. A results table was made to record the numbers of organisms in. The results were displayed in graphs and tables. The graphs show the average number of each organism and the actual number of each organism in each of the woodlands. In the third graph five significant organisms have been picked out. This is because they have significant values and reasons for these values. The tullgren funnel was set up using a certain amount of the leaf litter that acted as a sieve that the organisms could fall through from the humus that was placed on top of the leaf litter. 20g of humus and 10g of leaf litter was used in the tullgren funnel because only a small amount was needed. A 100w bulb was used in both experiments (for each woodland). The organisms were driven, by the drying effect of the bulb, down the tullgren funnel and eventually they fell into the 30cm3 of ethanol. The organisms died but their bodies were preserved so that at the end of five days the different organisms in the ethanol and the larger organisms in the dried up leaf litter could be identified and recorded using a microscope and a dichotomous key. This method was used because it was the most reliable, and ensured that all organisms present were removed from the sample in the tullgren funnel. Some very small organisms that were not affected by the drying effect of the bulb were not counted. During the experiment predation between organisms were occurring, this was not accounted for. The average test and the t-test were used, because two averages were being compared and there were less than 25 unmatched organisms in each sample. The value of t = 5.524 was greater than the value given for 22 points of freedom so that the Ho (null hypothesis) was rejected and the alternative hypothesis was accepted. Therefore the assumption, that the number of organisms are greater in the deciduous woodland, can be made. So the number of organisms did differ in the deciduous and coniferous woodland. The decomposition rate in the deciduous woodland is faster because organisms such as the earthworm can survive in this environment, because this environment is more alkaline than the coniferous woodland, which is more acidic. If conditions are less acidic then organisms such as the earthworm can survive and continue the fast decomposition, keeping the surrounding environment more alkaline. This is a negative feedback effect. So the number of species was greater deciduous woodland, with the exception of Springtails and small spiders. This is because these organisms have adapted to the acidic conditions of the coniferous woodland. Hypotheses Null Hypothesis (Ho) there was no difference in the number of organisms in the two soils. Alternative Hypothesis (H1) there was a difference in the number of organisms in the two soils. The Aim The aim of this investigation is to compare the difference in numbers of invertebrates in the coniferous and deciduous woodlands when samples are taken from each. The samples taken will be tested, recorded and evaluations will be made. Prediction The data collected will show that a coniferous woodland will contain fewer of the organisms that have been selected for study than in the deciduous woodland, and also that the depth of leaf litter will be considerably more in the coniferous woodland than in the deciduous woodland. Evidence In the deciduous woodland where the experiment was done, many different species of trees were growing. These trees have large, thin green leaves, to absorb the maximum amount of sunlight available. When these leaves fall off the trees to the ground, detritivores such as the worm, start the chain of decomposition. Without the detritivores the saprophytes (bacteria) cannot continue the process, after the detritivores, of breaking down the complicated organic matter. These leaves have a large surface area for detritivores to start the process of decomposition. Decomposition occurs relatively quickly therefore the layer of leaf litter will be thinner. However, in the coniferous woodland where the experiment took place there was only one species of tree and that was the pine. The pine needles are long and thin which are thought to increase the surface area for the absorption of sunlight. This surface area is also where, when the pine needles fall to the ground, the detritivores start the process of decomposition. Because of the conditions in the coniferous woodland the detritivores take longer to decompose the leaf litter. Therefore if the rate of decomposition is slow, and the rate of the pine needles falling are fast, then there will be more leaf litter on the ground of the coniferous woodland than on the floor of the deciduous woodland. The exotic conifer grows at a faster rate than the native broardleaves. Because the conifer is exotic, there are few insects and birds associated with it and so the exotic conifer is useless for use by native organisms. Because conifers are planted as a monoculture they are easy to manage (i.e. planting, weeding, fertilising, etc). But each tree needs exactly the same amount of nutrients and water because they are of the same species. This causes a deficiency of nutrients in the soil and so fertilisers have to be used. This could eventually lead to pest epidemics and so pesticides may also be needed. When a monoculture is planted, all the trees are of the same age and so are easily managed because there is little variation in height. The conifer woodlands and forests are planted in straight lines and are therefore easier to manage. However, this arrangement looks odd and unnatural because trees in a deciduous woodland are not planted in this way. If the conifers are planted densely then this ensures reduced side branch growth and increased height (therefore increasing the value of the timber). If all the trees are removed at the same time there will be a drastic change of the landscape which may result in a large amount of soil erosion. Variables * Light intensity in the coniferous woodland = 3.5 * Light intensity in the deciduous woodland = 3.5 * Temperature in the coniferous woodland = 28oC * Temperature in the deciduous woodland = 27oC Syllabus Areas Climate (i.e. local and micro climates, vegetation, landuse, topography). The Lithosphere (i.e. soils, nutrients, acidity). Ecological Relationships (i.e. ecosystems). Soil (i.e. conservation, cultivation techniques). Mathematical Skills (i.e. plotting graphs, understanding graphs, etc).

Engineering Analysis 4 - Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Engineering Analysis 4 - - Assignment Example Its highly encouraged to use different methods apart from the above mentioned since they are able to yield precisely better results, a way to counter this problem. b Many Laplace Transform software have been developed to solve the differential equations, this software need someone with skills in computers and knowledge in the Laplace so as to use the software efficiently and to be able to guide it to produce error free results. Its encouraged to use the right software that has been tested for to reduce these errors. d The method is tiresome and one mistake in the process can produce wrong results. This can problem is easily countered by looking carefully at the equations and also making sure each variable is corresponding to the value its assigned. The Laplace transform is a method that is applied in solving linear ordinary differential equations. It finds its way in different fields such as in Physics, Control Engineering, electrical Engineering, Signal processing and also Optics. Here we look at different areas were its applied a Application in Physics (It is part of engineering study)- it can be used to solve the harmonics vibrations of the beams at their both end. The formula is correctly inserted to calculate these harmonics c In power system load frequency control- power systems are comprised of transmissions, generations and distributions of systems.There must be turbines which drives a generator that serves the load through distributing and transmission lines. C) The analytic solution does not give the exact solution of the y value. Furthermore, analytic method cannot be used to solve complex differential equations. Analytic solutions can only be used to solve ordinary differential equations of systems where approximations are allowed hence they cannot be used in the design of medical systems and other sensitive engineering systems. Analytic methods are used to solve system equations where complex

Emerging markets Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Emerging markets - Essay Example Countries globally are developing by encouraging foreign direct investments (FDI). They are doing this in order to increase their economic strength and move forward economically. Emerging markets have developed in various countries especially developing countries. Emerging markets attract FDI based on the mode of the economy in terms of development, political and market share. This paper explains foreign direct investment (FDI) in emerging markets and focuses in China as one of the emerging markets encouraging FDI. Justification of the Topic Foreign direct investment (FDI) in emerging markets is chosen as the topic of study in this article. FDI relates to an investment done by a firm in a foreign country. The foreign firm does the investment for creation of commodities. FDI is encouraged by the availability of factors of production, markets share and flexibility of economy. Foreign direct investment (FDI) is taken to by the big firms to the developing countries mostly the emerging ec onomies. This is seen as a change from the previous act whereby most firms in developing countries were investing in their own countries. The rise of foreign direct investments on emerging markets has been increasing since 1980. The same factors noted above increases the rate of FDI in emerging markets. ... Resmini (2000) adds that increasing FDI has been seen in the developing countries. The idea is supported by various factors including the cost of labour, political stability, stable financial institutions and stable economies in the host countries. The author explains further that investors have been able to view and analyze the above mentioned factors to conduct investments in emerging markets. Some of the emerging markets have not been exploited because of the countries’ political instability, poor financial regulations and weak development shown by workers. FDI on emerging markets has also be supported by the changes in various countries whereby the investors have are able to acquire state owned items, which has been happening in various countries especially Asian and Latin American countries. The fact is that the investors in the above mentioned countries are able to obtain the assets because of financial crises which have recently hit the countries. Furthermore, the inven tors in those markets are encouraged by cheap and available labour. Despite the search of strong financial institutions and stable economies by the investors in emerging markets, most of the emerging markets have got the above disadvantages as compared to developed countries. FDI investing in the emerging markets are not the same with the FDI in developed countries. They use different strategies to counter the difficulties in the developing countries to increase their investments. One of the strategies is the provision of lower wages to the workers since they are operating in unstable economies. Emerging markets are currently the sources to the growth of most countries’ economies. This can be evidenced from the current growth seen in countries like China, Brazil, South

Democratic deficit in IMF

Democratic deficit in IMF Democratic deficit in IMF Introduction International Monetary Fund(IMF) is one of the two organisations formed after the Bretton woods conference in 1944. the other one is the World Bank. It has to be noted in the earliest that though this article deals with IMF and how the democratic deficit in it affects the poorest of the countries in the world, the IMF works in tandem with the world bank and other international financial institutions. The founding principle of IMF is rooted deep in the Great Depression of 1930s. During the depression the industrialised countries of the world plummeted themselves by engaging in raising trade barriers, devalued their currencies for competing in the export market and even restricted their citizens from holding any foreign exchange all of these measures resulted in further loss of trade and employment making millions jobless and poor. One of the major reasons for establishing an institution like IMF was to oversee exchange rate stability and international payments ensuring smooth functioning of the complex international monetary system. IMF along with World Bank(WB)was formed in 1945 in the wake of the pressing need for the post war reconstruction and assuring monetary stability in the world economy especially European economy. Though it officially came into existence in December 27, when 29 countries ratified its charter or Articles of Agreement in 1945, it started its operations onl y on March 1, 1947. During the cold war years the membership in IMF was limited due to the pressure of Soviet Union on newly independent countries. End of the fixed standard As pointed earlier the IMF oversaw the fixed exchange rate system where every currency is pegged at US dollars which can be converted in to Gold. The increasing spending on the war in Vietnam adding to the increasing expenditure on Great Society Programs initiated by US President Lyndon Johnson worsened the already overvalued US dollar. This system was started to be abandoned slowly between 1968 and 1973. The major point came when US President Nixon announced the de-linking of US dollar from gold. But the transition to free floating exchange rate system, where every member of IMF was free to peg its currency against any currency or group of currencies, was smoothly done. The period also posited another challenge in the form of unprecedented rise of oil prices, culminating in what is called Oil shocks. It responded to the situation by setting up two oil facilities to help oil importers deal with current account deficit and inflation( Nayyar: 2006). The IMFs engagement with the poor countries starts from the mid 70s when it stated funding these countries through its Trust Fund. The IMF with the end of the cold war and influenced by The jettisoning of the Keynesian demand management policies after their initial success and success of the liberalisation policies initiated by the Richard Nixon in US and Margaret Thatcher in UK along with the collapse of the Soviet Union and Eastern Bloc bolstered a new era symbolically represented by IMF and World Bank called Neo-Liberalism where both IMF and WB was used to force the erstwhile socialist and mixed economic countries to open their markets to foreign investors and liberalise their financial system, the effects of which were highly destabilizing. While the East Asian economies initially showed high growth rates the same programs resulted in devastations across Sub Saharan Africa. The vehemently critiqued Structural Adjustment Facility which was later changed into Enhanced Structural Ad justment Facility was initiated in March 1986. The Financial Functions of IMF Any understanding of the functioning of IMF should also differentiate between IMF and World Bank. The IMF, unlike Bank is not primarily a lending institution like World Bank. The WB also is a complex organisation. It is actually two organisation International Bank for Reconstruction and Development(IBRD) and International Development Association(IDA).WB is an investment bank. The World Bank functions by issuing bonds the repayment of which is guaranteed by its member countries. That is WB lends money to development works through market borrowing. The IDA, on the other hand is a concessional loan associate which is mainly financed by donor nations. The IMF in contrast intermediate between investors and recipients. It demands membership fee from its members which is accrued in to a general pool. Each member contributes to this pool according to its economic size and strength, providing each member a respective quota which also translate into their voting share in a skewed manner. Its o perations are to a major part are financed through this common pool. What does IMF exactly do? The IMFs role is highlighted when any member nation falls into a balance of payment debacle. a country must have both its exports and imports at almost equal levels. After the floating exchange rate system was adopted, every nation is left free to peg its currency against any or any group of currencies. But it also develops a problem over a period of time. The value of the currency tend to get overvalued. Thus a currency might be pegged at four units to one dollar. After a period of time due to trade fluctuations, the currencys actual value might have reached six units to one dollar. What effects does this over valuation have? At this time the currencys higher value helps in reducing import expenditure whereas at the same time the currencys higher value makes it costlier and reduces export revenue. Thus economy receives less income but spends more. This plummets the economy into a balance of payment crisis. This is where IMF enters into the scene. The IMF be ing the only international organisation with the support of the dominant economies and with expertise advises and directs nations to escape from such balance of payment crisis. IMF provides short term and medium term loans to tide over the debacle for the time being. But IMF also has influence over the decision making in World Bank and other financial institutions. The loans are not without fetters however. The loans are accompanied by a series of conditions generally termed as conditionalities . Thus the major functions of the IMF can be broadly classified as follows: 1) to promote exchange rate stability to maintain international trade stability 2) by providing short term and medium term financial assistance to members facing shortage of foreign currency. 3) It also plays an advisory role on macro-economic policy issues so that the economic policies of member countries do not adversely affect the balance of payment situation. 4) it also assist member nations in expanding their markets where they can exchange currencies without restriction. ( Sharma, 2002: 90). Democratic deficit What is meant by democracy in the case of international organizations like IMF? It is well known that the IMF was originally not conceived to be an organisation to help the third world countries or less developed erstwhile colonies. Its chief aim, along with World Bank was to ensure reconstruction of the capitalist economies in the war ravaged European nations. The agenda of lending and interfering in developing countries was initiated in the course of the cold war attempting to lure newly independent countries away from the socialist bloc dominated by Soviet Union. No surprise that still the organisation of the chief decision making bodies inside the Bretton woods institution reflect the political equations existing at the time of the second world war completely tuned to the interest of the Developed countries. When IMF and Bank was formed, except for United States, members were expected to be both contributors and borrowers. The decisions in the Executive board is reached through voting, if not reached by consensus. Each country holds a share of vote with regard to their contribution to the world economy. The united states the with the largest voting power holds 17.09 % of shares. Almost 63% of shares is held by just 12 member countries including US out of 186 members of the IMF. The same condition prevails in the world bank also. The 24-country African group in contrast carries only 1.42% of total voting share power making their influence practically nil in the agenda setting and decision making processes and policies. This problem arises because, there are only 8 member countries enjoying their own seat on the board. The remaining 16 are divided between the remaining 179 countries. This skewed system renders other member countries to group together to augment their collective bargaining or voting share represented by an Executive Director. This reflects in the policies of the IMF and its results. Howe ver, the democratic deficit is not the cause of the problems associated with the IMF. Rather, the very democratic structure of both the IMF and Bank are themselves symptoms of a much structural problem, the present world order based on the capitalist model of production and its prevailing ideology ‘neo-liberalism. Unequal representation Constituencies The groupings of the member countries have created what has come to be called ‘Constituency system.. all the members other than eight of them who have their own seats group together to form constituencies to elect a Director for their constituency to represent them. These constituencies are not static groupings. The size of the constituencies i.e. the memberships both qualitatively and quantitatively change depending on various factors, especially economic factors. This happens because every country except for some are on the lookout to increase their leverage vis-a vis other constituencies and within their constituency to apportion a bigger share out of the collective bargaining. But, in some cases, member countries also shift constituencies due to ideological considerations. For example, Indonesia joined the constituency headed by Italy in 1950s and later moved to a constituency of Islamic countries of North Africa and Malaysia. Later, Indonesia formed a constituency on geogr aphical basis, consisting of Korea, Philippines and Vietnam. One of the major reasons why members change constituencies has been to hold a more influential or senior position within the constituency. For example, earlier, Spain was within the constituency headed by Italy along with Poland and Greece. Later in 1978, Spain joined a central American constituency including Mexico and Venezuela assuming the post of Executive Director (Wood, 2006:483). The representation as shown above is based on the economic might of the members. The 24 member African constituency headed by Equatorial Guinea and the 19 member African constituency headed by Nigeria ahold only 1.42% and 3.01% respectively. But paradoxically these are the countries which are directly and severely affected by the policies of the IMF and World Bank. It has to be reminded that it is the masses , peasants, working classes of these countries who toil hard to repay their countrys debits. But they have almost no say on whatever the decisions that impinge and affect on their lives. It is a process of taxation without representation. But the IMF and Bank were not planned to be as undemocratic as they are now in their origin. The Bretton Woods Institutions also provide 250 basic votes to every member of the organisation. This was actually introduced to ensure a minimum sense of equal representation and fair play among members. The basic vote system atleast ensured a minimum of equal stake along with the share on the basis of contribution. The quota votes are added to basic votes to form the total vote. But the basic votes which formed 14% of the total votes in 1955 has now come down to around 3 percent in both IMF and World Bank. Selection of the head The selection of the head of the IMf is the most glaring evidence of unequal representation and hegemony of the dominant western industrialized nations. The IMFs executive board is responsible for selecting the Managing Director. Any Executive Director may submit a nomination for the position. If more than one gets nominated, the executive board reaches a decision by consensus. But by precedence, usually only a European becomes the Managing director of IMF. And in the case of World Bank only an American becomes the head. Accountability The executive board do not adequately hold staff and management to account. There are no official mechanisms for holding elected Directors, members after being elected. The Dutch executive Director however, has introduced a template to ground evaluation of his staff which is slowly gathering favour and being implemented by other Directors. But still there are no rules and regulations except for a vague and broad mention in sec 14 d of the By-Laws. It states â€Å" It shall be the duty of an executive Director and his alternate to devote all the time and attention to the business of the Fund that its interests require and between them, to be continually available at the principle offices of the Fund.† According to IMF Articles of Agreement the Managing Director â€Å"The Managing Director shall be chief of the operating staff of the Fund and shall conduct, under the direction of the Executive Board, the ordinary business of the Fund. Subject to the general control of the Executive Board, he shall be responsible for the organization, appointment, and dismissal of the staff of the Fund† (article xii, 4,b). Regarding the accountability of the Directors, a code of conduct was established only in 2000 applicable to Executive Directors, their alternates and senior Advisors. It has established some standards of ethical conduct regarding conflict of interests arising from the functioning as Executive Director and also supposed to treat confidential information. It also mandates disclosure of regular financial reports. For the purpose of confirming to confidentiality and other ethical issues, an Ethics committee of five Executive Directors was formed. But far most, the committee ca n only warn the relevant Executive Director communicate it to the respective Governor. It has to be kept in mind that ultimately the internal accountability comes down to moral persuasions. Accountability of Executive Directors, in relation to the countries they represent, however, work in different terms. The countries with their own representatives can hold their directors directly accountable. He can be dismissed and replaced at will. But a representative Director who was elected cannot be dismissed or replaced by any of the members until his term ends. A member can be induced to resign but no Articles provide the members the right to require resignation from him. The problem with this set up is obvious. There is no mandated obligation for him to follow the orders or directions of the member countries. The director can even vote against the interests of the very member, he/she represent. Reading this with the sec 14 d of the article provides a much more clear picture. Where the Director is not mandatorily obligated to follow the directions of the countries represented by him, he is obligated to work in tandem with other members. This creates enormous opportunities f or developed nations to simply buy-out the representatives of developing and under-developed countries. This problem emanates from the fact also that constituencies are not mandatorily legitimate units of representation. Regarding the accountability of the staffs and management towards executive board, three reasons are cited. First, it is difficult for members of the Executive Board to prepare papers and positions on all countries. Many Executive Directors remain in the job only for a short time. In the cases of constituencies, as there are rotations of the seat of Director, the time for the Director is too short to acquire real idea of the organizational set up. Second, the tendency to present a picture of unified view in Board discussions, the staff and management fail to play a proactive role by seriously debating over their disagreement. Third, the most important problem is that many discussion are taken by Executive Boards before the board meetings. This is especially the sign of influence of the dominant countries in the decision making processes of the IMF. Issues like loans to countries that are against the US approval or interest will not at all be presented before the board. IMF also lacks accountability to its member nations. IMF by its, functioning is accountable only to the Finance ministers and central bank Governors. But the role of IMf has expanded to such areas that the accountability needs to be widened. The IMFs prescriptions are now not only restricted to only matters concerning finance ministries and central bank governors. Expanding activities: IMF was not instituted by its founders to carry out the range of activities it is currently carrying out. The IMF was instituted on the basis of the Keynesian demand management. It was understood that there should be an international organisation to overlook the monetary activities of the countries to keep the exchange rates relatively stable and insulated from shocks. But the area of interest expanded with decreasing clout of the Soviet bloc. More nations switched over to capitalist model and IMF and world Bank were rested with the duty to open the various . These functions got impetus with the neo-liberal policies initiated by Reagan and Thatcher in the United States and Britain. A major transformation came with the demise of the Soviet bloc after which the marketisation of these economies become the main objective of the Bretton Woods institutions. With these they have almost became the primary instruments of globalisation of world economy. The BWIs have come to be the only large lenders and monetary policy institutions. More and more countries are forced to approach these organizations in the absence of an alternative. In a sample of 25 countries, there were only between six and ten measures of performance criteria for loans on conditionality whereas it increased to 25 measures at the end of 1990s.But the accountability and transparency of the IMF has not increased with these new functions. The role of US and other developing countries The role of US especially the Treasury in the functioning of the Bretton Woods institution has been a matter of concern and critique for the democratization of the global financial institutions. Also the US along with other developed countries called G7 form a formidable group controlling almost 47.13% of the total voting power. These countries act as a de facto management of IMF. Also unlike the developing countries they have well equipped staffs . They co-ordinate between each other. This is ensured by their shared interests, being the major creditors. The ministers, central bank governors convene a meeting on issues and agendas before the annual and spring meetings and issue press communiquà © together. The Executive Directors also co-ordinate with each other on common positions. The IMF has acted more as an arm of the western especially US financial interests. The liberalization policy was forced on Kenya by the US Treasury through the IMF. The experience of Kenya when it implem ented financial liberalization was devastating. The result was fourteen bank failures in 1993 and 1994. Also the US holds the only veto power in the IMF with its 17% voting share. Also in 2000 the US congress was unilaterally able to propose and pass a resolution and later implement a measure of change and reform in IMF without consulting any other member. The US through its executive Board members, staffs and location of the organization and as the BWIs court US favour for their operation exercise a hegemonic influence over both IMF and Bank ( Stiglitz, 2002). Needed Reforms Most of the problems regarding IMF arise because of the dissonance created between IMFs supposed functions and the current functions it is carrying out. The IMF, to use Nobel laureate and earlier chief economist in World Bank, Joseph Stiglitz ‘the IMF never likes to discuss the uncertainties associated with the policies that it recommends, but rather, likes to project an image of being infallible†(Stiglitz, 2002: 230). The IMF, time and again has been only admitting mistakes as in the handling East Asia crisis. The IMF have also been slow in learning from its mistakes. But the mistakes are not simply mistakes by indifferent individuals. They are also evidence to the level of influence of free market ideology professed by the international financial community and the US Treasury. The reforms must also focus on the operational costs being forced on to the developing countries, the principle borrowers. The operational costs of IMF is financed by the subscriptions every member country makes and also from the interests to the loans debtor countries pay back. By this logic, it is the developing countries which are financing most of the IMF expenses. From the breakdown of the expenses of the IMF, it has been founded that the contribution of the developed countries who are the creditors have come down to 29% in 2000 from 71% in 1980. this means that three fourths of the administrative expenses of the IMF is financed by the same countries are dependent on the loans provided by the IMF. Also the fund allocated for the Report on the Observance of Standards and Codes(ROSCs) and the Financial Sector Assessment Program (FSAP). Nearly 89 countries and 95 countries have participated in these schemes, respectively. But the majority of the countries who have had the assessme nts are developed countries. Developing countries and Sub Saharan African countries were hardly assessed about their financial and monetary status. Thus a good amount of money is spent on countries that are in good health rather than on those who need help and re-structuring (Woods, 2006:498). The IMF should restrict itself to the mandated functions it was allocated to it when it was formed i.e to only monitoring and advising on the exchange rate stability. The lending business should be handed over entirely to the world bank. Also the basic votes to the member countries should be brought back to the level at earlier years of IMF and should be slowly increased to enable a far more democratic practice than what is practiced now. Developing countries like India, China, Brazil, South Africa should be provided more voting share as their global contribution has also increased in recent years. Especially the case for increase of voting share of China is a long standing issue came to spotlight during the recent financial crisis when China has bargained for an increase in its voting share. More seats of Executive Directors should be formed to accommodate varied under-represented countries(Ambrose, 2007). Also agencies f horizontal accountability have to be built like independent evaluation unit. Like the supreme court acts as horizontal agency working as a component of constitutionalism one of the benchmarks of democracy in modern era, offices endowed with overseeing accountability and transparency have to be established. Conclusion The IMF and World bank, especially IMF have veered away from their mandated area of functioning. The need for an international monetary agency always remains as long as capitalist economy prevails. The veto power hld by US also need to be balanced at least by providing other larger economies including developing economies with more role in decision making process. A more rational approach towards representation of poor nations has to be made. The liberalization of the asian economic powers has created rifts even within borrowers regarding the kind of schemes of lending. While developing countries like China, India, Indonesia etc. are provided with schemes with less scrutiny, Sub-Saharan countries receive credit after a long process of office work. The democratization of IMF based on the economic strength of present era will obviously provide great boost in bargaining power of developing countries vis-à  -vis developed countries. But it is not sure whether the process will surely ben efit even the poorest in these developing countries, let alone other poor countries of Latin America and Africa. The constituency system should be replaced by atleast minimum one per one country added with the vote in relation to their contribution to the world economy. Accountability within the organization can be developed only when the term of the Directors are ensured unlike in the case of constituency where rotation system operates. References Nayyar, Deepak (ed.). 2006. Governing Globalization: Issues and Instituions. New Delhi: Oxford University Press. Stiglitz, Joseph. 2002. Globalization And Its Discontents. New York: Allen Lane. Ambrose, Soren. 2009. Multilateral Money. Counterpunch. Available online at: http://www.counterpunch.org/ambrose09022009.html Ambrose, Soren. 2007. Confidence Crisis at the IMF. Counterpunch Available online at: http://www.counterpunch.org/ambrose04172007.html Ambrose, Soren. 2007. IMF Reforms: Mere Tinkering or Change We Can Live With? Foreign Policy in Focus. Available online at: http://www.fpif.org/articles/imf_reforms_mere_tinkering_or_change_we_can_live_with Elson, Diane. 1994. People, Development and International Financial Institutions: An Interpretation of the Bretton Woods System. Review of African Political Economy, 21, 62 : 511-524 . Available online at : http://www.jstor.org/stable/4006259 Glenn, John. 2008. Global Governance and the Democratic Deficit: stifling the voice of the South. Third World Quarterly, 29, 2: 217 — 238. Available online at : http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01436590701806798 Sharma, Shalendra D. 2002. Reforming the IMF: Can it serve as an â€Å"international lender of last resort?†. Global Economic Review, 31, 2: 89 — 104 Available online at: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/12265080208422895 Woods, Ngaire. 2001. Making the IMF and the World Bank More Accountable. International Affairs (Royal Institute of International Affairs 1944-),77, 1: 83-100. Available online at : http://www.jstor.org/stable/2626555 Woods, Ngaire and Lombardi, Domenico. 2006. Uneven patterns of governance: how developing countries are represented in the IMF. Review of International Political Economy, 13, 3: 480 — 515. Available online at: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09692290600769351

Micro Environmental Factors Essay

What micro environmental factors have affected Xerox’s performance since the late 1990s? Xerox has dominated the industry by inventing photocopying, but changes in the internal environment shook its fortune and market value. At the beginning of technological change, Xerox lacked a solid management level. Poor leadership makes poor marketing decisions. Restricted product options limited necessary opportunities for growth and staying atop competition. They were stuck on the copying and printing technology at the time when the customer market moved on to sharing documents and information digitally. The inability to meet customers’ demands drove down the stock price and cost the company profits. To stay in business, Xerox had to make changes in marketing channel firms, namely the revision of suppliers, by outsourcing to China. It improved product cost, while preserving quality and creating better customer value. Vast management modifications, in form of attaining good leadership, cutting down on workforce, and changing focus from selling product to fitting customer needs, saved company’s economics from declining. It is until the recession of 2001 that negatively marked all economic activities; to recover, Xerox made a major decision to acquire ACS, an IT company. Incorporation has equipped the company with new expertise, capabilities, and business channels to proceed with a new business plan. Importantly, innovations allowed improving document management process, Xerox’s new production and marketing focus, dropping the number of technological errors and lowering labor to complete tasks. As the company expanded offering a broad portfolio of document management technology and services products, it redefined its name and altered Xerox’s competitors from copy machine producers to IT companies like HP and IBM. A new strong competition usually inspires more effort to serve customers better. These changes in the Xerox’s micro environmental factors have positively affected the company’s ability to serve its customers. Being in business for more than 50 years brings the company advantages in the form of branding and strong reputation with consumers and other customers.